J. Adelberg, C. Tanner, R. El-hawaz, and N. Tharayil, “Shade and Fertilizer Affects Yield and Quality in a Clonal Plantation of Yaupon Holly,” 2021.
doi: 10.7275/985V-NW12.
Yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria Ait.) is the only native American source of caffeinated tea and the small amounts of tea product that is available is currently wild-collected from diverse populations. A clonal field plantation of yaupon was grown under shading and fertilizer treatments and harvested three times in one season to observe changes in yield and phytochemistry. The June and September harvest produced more mass than the July harvest for all treatments. Shading and fertility had interactive effects on increasing fresh mass of the pooled annual harvest, whereas the providing 30% shade and increased fertilizer application (from 567 to 1163 mg/N plant) raised yield 58%. Fertility of 1163 mg/N per plant with 60% shade increased yield another 13% to approximately 1070 kg/ha. This experimental plantation contained 467 plants per ha and was at about half the density of commercial fields (882 plants per ha). Leaves were smaller in July and larger in June and September. Shade greatly increased the leaf size and water content. Caffeine content increased with leaf size over the duration of the experimental treatments and 60% shade treatments in September produced the highest caffeine content (1.21 ± 0.17% of dry mass). In general alkaloids were promoted by shading, and phenylpropanoids were promoted by bright light. This report from one season of observation showed that genetically uniform yaupon holly plantations were manipulated for yield and quality using shade and fertilizer.
S. Arrieta and F. Suárez, “Germination and Seed Bank Depletion of Holly (Ilex Aquifolium L.) in Four Microhabitat Types,” Seed Science Research, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 305–313, Sep. 2004.
doi: 10.1079/SSR2004180.
The germination dynamics of Ilex aquifolium L. were studied in central Spain using a 3-year field sowing experiment. Ten triads of bags (n = 30 seeds per bag) were buried randomly in four different microhabitats: inside the holly woodland, along the forest edge, in open grassland and under isolated shrubs. Bags were harvested annually, and seeds were analysed for seed viability, embryo development changes and germination. Holly seeds did not germinate until the second year. Embryo development and seed germination were faster at the forest edge, with a total germination proportion of 63% of sown seeds. Germination in the holly woodland (48%), under the shrubs (46%) and in grassland (46%) were very similar. Thus, recruitment of Ilex populations in this region is not limited by requirements for germination. After the third year, the seed bank was reduced by 80–90% of the initial seeds, so it can be considered as a short-persistent seed bank. Holly seed behaviour can enhance recruitment in semi-open areas, such as forest edges. Linked to the short persistence of its seed bank, this species can be considered an intermediate strategist between mature forest specialists and early successional species. This work contributes to a deeper knowledge of the germination ecology of I. aquifolium, in an effort to determine the relative importance of germination/ dormancy processes within holly population dynamics.
K. R. Barker, D. M. Benson, and R. K. Jones, “Interactions of Burfordi, Rotunda, and Dwarf Yaupon Hollies and Aucuba with Selected Plant-Parasitic Nematodes.,” Plant Disease Reporter, vol. 63, no. 2, pp. 113–116, 1979.https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/19790856255.
The host responses of selected woody ornamentals and their suitability as food sources for several nematode species were determined in microplot experiments. Host-nematode combinations tested were: Aucuba japonica var. variegata with Paratrichodorus minor, Helicotylenchus dihystera, Meloidogyne arenaria, and Tylenchorhynchus claytoni; Ilex cornuta cv. Rotunda and I. vomitoria var. nana (dwarf...
F. T. Bonner and R. P. Karrfalt, “The Woody Plant Seed Manual,” Agric. Handbook No. 727. Washington, DC. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1223 p., vol. 727, 2008.https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/32626.
Publication from the USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station
M. A. Borden, M. Wilhelm, and A. G. Dale, “Yaupon Holly Culture and Pest Management for Tea Production and Ornamental Use,” EDIS, vol. 2020, no. 6, p. 8, Dec. 2020.
doi: 10.32473/edis-in1299-2020.
Yaupon holly, Ilex vomitoria Aiton, is an evergreen woody plant native to the southeastern United States. The species is widely used as a landscape ornamental plant because it tolerates a wide range of soil and environmental conditions, is available in various forms, and attracts wildlife, especially native birds. Recently, there has been a resurgence of interest in cultivating the plant for the caffeinated beverages that can be made from its leaves. This 8-page fact sheet written by Matthew A. Borden, Mark A. Wilhelm, and Adam G. Dale and published by the UF/IFAS Entomology and Nematology Department provides a guide to managing yaupon holly and protecting it from pests. It will be useful to both commercial growers and homeowners interested in growing this beautiful and useful plant.https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/in2199
R. W. Bovey and J. D. Diaz-Colon, “Occurrence of Plant Growth Inhibitors in Tropical and Subtropical Vegetation,” Physiologia Plantarum, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 253–259, 1969.
doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3054.1969.tb07374.x.
Acetone, ethanol and water extracts of mature fruits of yaupon (llex vomitoria Ait.) inhibited germination of mesquite (Prosopis juliflora Swartz DC. var. glandulosa (Torr.) Cockerell and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench). Extracts of guava fruit (Psidium guajava L.) inhibited cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) seed germination. Water soluble inhibitors were found in fruits, leaves, roots and bark of several tropical species representing 10 different families. Strong inhibition of cucumber seed germination and growth did not occur in sand when water extracts containing inhibitors were applied. Growth of corn, sorghum, cucumber and bean was reduced in soils collected beneath Malay apple (Eugenia malaccensis L.) trees. Plant growth-inhibitors occurred in all species studied in various plant parts, and some apparently affect the growth and ecology of other plant species.
N. Bracesco, A. G. Sanchez, V. Contreras, T. Menini, and A. Gugliucci, “Recent Advances on Ilex Paraguariensis Research: Minireview,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 136, no. 3, pp. 378–384, Jul. 2011.
doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2010.06.032.
Ilex paraguariensis dried and minced leaves are made into a brewed tea, prepared in a sui generis manner by large populations in South America, having evolved from a tea drunk by the Guarani ethnic group to a beverage that has a social and almost ritualistic role in some South American modern societies. It is used both as a source of caffeine, in lieu or in parallel with tea and coffee, but also as a therapeutic agent for its alleged pharmacological properties. Although with some exceptions, research on biomedical properties of this herb has had a late start and strongly lags behind the impressive amount of literature on green tea and coffee. However, in the past 15 years, there was a several-fold increase in the literature studying Ilex paraguariensis properties showing effects such as antioxidant properties in chemical models and ex vivo lipoprotein studies, vaso-dilating and lipid reduction properties, antimutagenic effects, controversial association with oropharyngeal cancer, anti-glycation effects and weight reduction properties. Lately, promising results from human intervention studies have surfaced and the literature offers several developments on this area. The aim of this review is to provide a concise summary of the research published in the past three years, with an emphasis on translational studies, inflammation and lipid metabolism. Ilex paraguariensis reduces LDL-cholesterol levels in humans with Ilex paraguariensis dyslipoproteinemia and the effect is synergic with that of statins. Plasma antioxidant capacity as well as expression of antioxidant enzymes is positively modulated by intervention with Ilex paraguariensis in human cohorts. A review on the evidence implicating Ilex paraguariensis heavy consumption with some neoplasias show data that are inconclusive but indicate that contamination with alkylating agents during the drying process of the leaves should be avoided. On the other hand, several new studies confirm the antimutagenic effects of Ilex paraguariensis in different models, from DNA double breaks in cell culture models to mice studies. Novel interesting work has emerged showing significant effect on weight reduction both in mice and in rat models. Some mechanisms involved are inhibition of pancreatic lipase, activation of AMPK and uncoupling of electron transport. Intervention studies in animals have provided strong evidence of anti-inflammatory effects of Ilex paraguariensis, notably protecting cigarette-induced lung inflammation acting on macrophage migration and inactivating matrix-metalloproteinase. Research on the effects of Ilex paraguariensis in health and disease has confirmed its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic and lipid-lowering activities. Although we are still waiting for the double-blind, randomized prospective clinical trial, the evidence seems to provide support for beneficial effects of mate drinking on chronic diseases with inflammatory component and lipid metabolism disorders.
K. P. Burris, F. M. Harte, P. Michael Davidson, C. Neal Stewart Jr, and S. Zivanovic, “Composition and Bioactive Properties of Yerba Mate (Llex Paraguariensis A. St.-Hil.): A Review,” Chilean journal of agricultural research v.72 n.2 2012, Apr. 2019.http://revistaschilenas.uchile.cl/handle/2250/55700.
Yerba Mate is a popular tea beverage produced and consumed in the South American countries of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay, and is processed from the leaves and stems of Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil., a perennial shrub from the Aquifoliaceae family. Production occurs in six stages: harvesting older leaves and small stems, roasting by direct fire, drying under hot air, milling to specified size, aging to acquire optimal sensory attributes, and final packaging. While grown and consumed for centuries in South America, its popularity is increasing in the United States because of demand by consumers for healthier, more natural foods, its filling a niche for a different type of tea beverage, and for Yerba Mate’s potential health benefits - antimicrobial, antioxidant, antiobesity, anti-diabetic, digestive improvement, stimulant, and cardiovascular properties. Cultivation, production and processing may cause a variation in bioactive compounds biosynthesis and degradation. Recent research has been expanded to its potential use as an antimicrobial, protecting crops and foods against foodborne, human and plant pathogens. Promising results for the use of this botanical in human and animal health has prompted this review. This review focuses on the known chemical composition of Yerba Mate, the effect of cultivation, production and processing may have on composition, along with a specific discussion of those compounds found in Yerba Mate that have antimicrobial properties.
Sementes de IIex paraguariensis St. Hil. apresentam dormência, devido a imaturidade embrionária associada à dureza de seu endocarpo, por se tratar de pireno, ocorrendo, desta forma, uma germinação desuniforme. As sementes de erva-mate foram submetidas a três épocas de semeadura (135, 179 e 221 dias de estratificação), em quatro níveis de temperaturas (constantes de 20° C, 25° C, 30° C e alternada de 20 e 30° C), três tipos de substratos (areia, vermiculita e ágar), sob ausência e presença de luz, com o objetivo de avaliar o comportamento germinativo da espécie. Os dados de germinação foram analisados, segundo um delineamento completamente ao acaso usando um fatorial 4 x 3 x 3 x 2 (temperatura x época x substrato x luz), com 5 repetições de 100 sementes por tratamento. Para estimar a capacidade germinativa das sementes para cada época de semeadura foi aplicado o teste de tetrazólio em 500 sementes, subdivididas em cinco subamostras. Quanto ao grau de maturidade da semente no momento da semeadura foram avaliados 50 embriões, em relação a forma e tamanho. Os testes de germinação demonstraram que a temperatura é um fator preponderante na germinação. As percentagens de germinação sob temperatura alternada 20-30° C chegaram a atingir 52%, enquanto nas temperaturas constantes de 20°C e 25° C não ultrapassaram a 4,4% e 1,0%, respectivamente e na de 30° C foi de zero. O substrato areia proporcionou os melhores resultados de germinação nas três épocas. Com relação à luz não houve influência deste fator no processo germinativo para as épocas 1 e 2, mas na época 3 a presença de luz influenciou positivamente. Quanto ao fator época, a maior percentagem de germinação (44,56%) e velocidade de germinação (69,9 dias) ocorreu na época 3, independente do substrato. Observou-se uma diminuição do período compreendido entre a semeadura e o início da germinação na época 3 (31 dias). Nas três épocas, a estabilização na curva de germinação foi aos 100 dias, após a primeira contagem, podendo-se encerrar os testes de germinação. As médias de sementes viáveis obtidas pelo teste de tetrazólio foi de 42% na época 1; 39% na época 2 e 41,6% na época 3, indicando que não ocorreu aumento no grau de deterioração das sementes, durante o período de estratificação. Na comparação das médias percentuais entre os testes de tetrazólio e de germinação, observou- se variação na diferença, havendo, de modo geral, incremento nas médias de germinação. O teste de tetrazólio, é ainda recomendado para a obtenção de uma estimativa rápida (3 dias) da capacidade germinativa das sementes. Na avaliação do desenvolvimento embrionário, verificou-se que ocorreu crescimento dos embriões. Sendo que a fase de coração foi 28%, 30% e 8%, respectivamente para a época 1, 2 e 3. Enquanto que a fase pós-coração foi de 72%, 68% e 90%, respectivamente para a época 1, 2 e 3. Porém, para a fase de torpedo foi 2% para as época 2 e 3. Esses dados demostram a mudança na quantidade de embriões da fase de coração para a fase de pós-coração e a desuniformidade no desenvolvimento destes.
C.-T. Chien, S.-Y. Chen, T.-Y. Chien, J. M. Baskin, and C. C. Baskin, “Nondeep Simple Morphophysiological Dormancy in Seeds of Ilex Maximowicziana from Northern (Subtropical) and Southern (Tropical) Taiwan,” Ecological Research, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 163–171, 2011.
doi: 10.1007/s11284-010-0773-4.
In this study, we show that seeds of Ilex maximowicziana collected from northern and southern Taiwan differ in germination responses to temperature. Seeds produced by plants growing in the tropical environment of southern Taiwan were more responsive (in a positive way) to higher incubation temperatures than those produced by plants growing in the subtropical environment of northern Taiwan. On the other hand, seeds produced in northern Taiwan were more responsive (in a positive way) to low incubation temperatures and to cold stratification than those from southern Taiwan. Germination percentages and rates of seeds from northern Taiwan were higher at 20/10°C than at 30/20°C, reaching a plateau of >80% germination after 12 weeks incubation, whereas germination of seeds from southern Taiwan reached >80% at 30/20 and 25°C but not at 20/10°C. Gibberellic acid (GA3) increased germination rate but not germination percentage of seeds from both southern and northern Taiwan. Freshly matured seeds of I. maximowicziana have rudimentary embryos. During dormancy break, embryo length increased 11.5- and 8.0-fold in northern and southern seeds, respectively, before radicle emergence. Thus, seeds of Ilex maximowicziana have nondeep simple morphophysiological dormancy. This is the first detailed study of the germination requirements of a subtropical/tropical species of the large cosmopolitan genus Ilex.
R. B. Clark and E. R. Orton, “Sex Ratio in Ilex Opaca Ait.12.”
G. C. Coelho and J. E. A. Mariath, “Inflorescences morphology of Ilex L. (Aquifoliaceae) species from Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil,” Feddes Repertorium, vol. 107, no. 1-2, pp. 19–30, 1996.
doi: 10.1002/fedr.19961070104.
Die Infloreszenzmorphologie von Arten der Gattung Ilex L. (Aquifoliaceae) wurde untersucht. Folgende Arten wurden berücksichtigt: I. brevicuspis REISS., I. dumosa REISS., I. integerrima (VELL.) REISS., I. microdonta REISS., I. paraguariensis ST.-HIL., I. pseudobuxus REISS., I. tauberiana LOES. und I. theezans MART. ex REISS. Homologien wurden bereits in einer früheren Studie der annuellen Entwicklung mittels Markierung der Sprosse nachgewiesen. Daraus ergeben sich Informationen zu einer „Saisonalen Wuchseinheit”︁ (Seasonal Growth Unit – S.G.U.), d. h. zur Entwicklung von Sprossen und Inflorenzen pro Jahr (oder pro Wuchssaison). Die Arten konnten unter Verwendung von S.G.U.-Mustern entsprechend phänologischen Kategorien, die auf dem Alter der Blätter basieren, klassifiziert werden. Bei diesen Arten ist die Thyrse das Basismuster der Infloreszenzen. Sie werden auf der Basis der S.G.U., die der Nachweis der Homologien ist, beschrieben. Dimorphismus erscheint regelmäßig zwischen pistillaten und staminaten Pflanzen, insbesondere als Anzahl der Blüten je Dichasium, wobei das Abortieren lateraler Blüten eingeschlossen ist. Die Arten von Rio Grande do Sul und Argentinien werden verglichen. Die Blütenstände reichen von kurzsprossigen Bracteal-Thyrsen mit lateralen Zymosen mit nur einer apikalen Blüte (I. paraguariensis, I. dumosa, I. microdonta, I. theezans, pistillate Pflanzen) bis zu frondulosen Thyrsen mit seitlichen Zymosen mit fünf bis 11 Blüten (I. taubertiana, staminate Pflanzen). Die gewonnenen Daten verweisen auf einen Zusammenhang zwischen der Höhenlage und frondulosen Thyrsen.
P. L. Crown, T. E. Emerson, J. Gu, W. J. Hurst, T. R. Pauketat, and T. Ward, “Ritual Black Drink Consumption at Cahokia,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 109, no. 35, pp. 13944–13949, Aug. 2012.
doi: 10.1073/pnas.1208404109.
Chemical analyses of organic residues in fragments of pottery from the large site of Cahokia and surrounding smaller sites in Illinois reveal theobromine, caffeine, and ursolic acid, biomarkers for species of Ilex (holly) used to prepare the ritually important Black Drink. As recorded during the historic period, men consumed Black Drink in portions of the American Southeast for ritual purification. This first demonstrated discovery of biomarkers for Ilex occurs in beaker vessels dating between A.D. 1050 and 1250 from Cahokia, located far north of the known range of the holly species used to prepare Black Drink during historic times. The association of Ilex and beaker vessels indicates a sustained ritual consumption of a caffeine-laced drink made from the leaves of plants grown in the southern United States.
P. L. Crown et al., “Ritual Drinks in the Pre-Hispanic US Southwest and Mexican Northwest,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 112, no. 37, pp. 11436–11442, Sep. 2015.
doi: 10.1073/pnas.1511799112.
Chemical analyses of organic residues in fragments of pottery from 18 sites in the US Southwest and Mexican Northwest reveal combinations of methylxanthines (caffeine, theobromine, and theophylline) indicative of stimulant drinks, probably concocted using either cacao or holly leaves and twigs. The results cover a time period from around A.D. 750–1400, and a spatial distribution from southern Colorado to northern Chihuahua. As with populations located throughout much of North and South America, groups in the US Southwest and Mexican Northwest likely consumed stimulant drinks in communal, ritual gatherings. The results have implications for economic and social relations among North American populations.
\relax P. H. I. L. I. P. P. E. Cuénoud, M. A. R. I. A. A. Del pero martinez, P. I. E. R. R. E.-A. N. D. R. E. Loizeau, \relax R. O. D. O. L. P. H. E. Spichiger, \relax S. U. S. Y. N. Andrews, and J. E. A. N.-F. R. A. N. C. O. I. S. Manen, “Molecular Phylogeny and Biogeography of the Genus Ilex L. (Aquifoliaceae),” Annals of Botany, vol. 85, no. 1, pp. 111–122, Jan. 2000.
doi: 10.1006/anbo.1999.1003.
The chloroplast atpB-rbcL spacer was sequenced for 115 species of Ilex and forNemopanthus mucronatus (Aquifoliaceae). In addition, rbcL sequences were obtained for 47 selected species. Taken together with fossil records in the literature, the data indicate that: (1) the lineage Ilex was already cosmopolitan long before the end of the Cretaceous. A relative test of the rate of nucleotide substitution indicates that extant species do not represent the entire lineage because of the extinction of its basal branches. The common ancestor of the extant species probably appeared at the upper Tertiary. (2) Several Asian/North American disjunctions are observed, as well as North American/South American relationships. The directions of these relationships are yet to be determined. The African species Ilex mitis is closely related to Asian species. Ilex anomala (Hawaii and Tahiti) is related to American species. Ilex perado and Ilex canariensis (both in Macaronesia) have totally different relationships, the former being related to Eurasian species, while relationships of the latter remain obscure. (3) Gene trees substantially contradict the systematics of Loesener.Nemopanthus, closely related to Ilex amelanchier, is nested in the genus Ilex. The family Aquifoliaceae is organized in four groups, each of them having a geographic or ecological peculiarity.
N. Dartora et al., “UPLC-PDA–MS Evaluation of Bioactive Compounds from Leaves of Ilex Paraguariensis with Different Growth Conditions, Treatments and Ageing,” Food Chemistry, vol. 129, no. 4, pp. 1453–1461, Dec. 2011.
doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.05.112.
Teas from Maté have been widely consumed for centuries in Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay. We now determine how age, growth conditions and post-harvesting processes of leaves from Ilex paraguariensis affect the concentration of bioactive compounds and their antioxidant capacity. Phenolics, xanthines, and carbohydrates were identified and quantified by electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) and ultra performance liquid chromatography (UPLC), which dramatically reduces the time for each analysis (<3min). On average, sun-exposed (monoculture) leaf extracts exhibited higher levels of bioactive compounds as compared to shaded (forest grown) ones. PCA (principal component analysis) analysis of all the samples indicated that those obtained after blanching and drying contained more phenolics and a smaller concentration of xanthine than those in natura. The oxidised leaves had lower concentrations of phenolics, and consequently a decline in antioxidant activity. No differences were found based on the leaf age.
J. Daviña, “The Karyotype of Ilex Brevicuspis Reissek (Aquifoliaceae),” vol. 62, pp. 217–222, Jan. 1998.
The karyotype of Ilex brevicuspis Reisek (Aquifoliaceae), 2n=40, 20 II and 36m+2sm+2st, is reported for the first time. The results presented will be useful considering that this chromosome characterization may contribute to the genetic improvement of I. paraguariensis St. Hil., yerba mate, known for its economic importance in the Rio de la Plata drainage basin.
J. D. Diaz-Colon, J. R. Baur, and R. W. Bovey, “Some Characteristics of a Growth Inhibitory Factor in Yaupon Fruit,” Economic Botany, vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 403–407, Oct. 1970.
doi: 10.1007/BF02860744.
Aqueous extracts of yaupon (Ilex vomitoria) fruit inhibited root growth of germinating cucumber seedlings. The inhibitory factor was slightly soluble in 80% ethanol, stable when stored up to 210 days at 22°C in amber bottles and resisted breakdown when stored at -2°C or 6°C. Some loss of activity was evident in boiled extracts. Extraction of fruit of varying degrees of maturity indicated that the concentration of the inhibitor(s) in mature fruit was greater than in green fruit. The data suggest that the factor affects growth of the root rather than inhibiting germination.
N. R. Dolce, H. Y. Rey, and L. A. Mroginski, “Cryopreservation of Ilex Dumosa (Aquifoliaceae) Germplasm,” I International Symposium on Cryopreservation in Horticultural Species, no. 908, pp. 347–353, 2011.
doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2011.908.46.
Cryopreservation of Ilex Dumosa (Aquifoliaceae) Germplasm
N. R. Dolce, L. A. Mroginski, and H. Y. Rey, “Endosperm and Endocarp Effects on the Ilex Paraguariensis A. St.-Hil. (Aquifoliaceae) Seed Germination,” Seed Science and Technology, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 441–448, Jul. 2010.
doi: 10.15258/sst.2010.38.2.17.
To develop a procedure for regenerating plants directly from pyrenes, as an alternative to in vitro embryo culture, germination studies were done on maté tree, Ilex paraguariensis, seeds using aseptic conditions. The effect of the endosperm, the woody endocarp and cold treatment on embryo development and germination were examined by culturing isolated embryos, intact, acid-scarified and bisected pyrenes from mature fruits. The results show that maté tree plantlets may be obtained by in vitro culture of bisected pyrenes on solidified (0.65% agar) quarter-strength Murashige and Skoog medium containing 3% sucrose. It is recommended to pre-culture the pyrenes at 4 ± 2°C to obtain a higher germination rate and more vigorous seedlings. This is the first report of the in vitro culture of Ilex pyrenes. Compared to the culture of isolated embryos this procedure shortens the duration of the embryo culture technique and minimizes damage to the young embryos.
N. R. Dolce, L. A. Mroginski, and H. Y. Rey, “Enhanced Seed Germination of Ilex Dumosa R. (Aquifoliaceae) through In Vitro Culture of Cut Pyrenes,” HortScience, vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 278–281, Feb. 2011.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.46.2.278.
An in vitro culture protocol was developed that increased the germination percentage and decreased the lag time to germination for Ilex dumosa R. pyrenes as a tool for replacing the laborious task of embryo rescue technique. This method involves transversely cutting surface-sterilized pyrenes with a scalpel blade, then placing the micropylar one-third end with the rudimentary embryo (≈0.25 mm long) on solidified (agar 0.65%) quarter-strength salts and vitamins of medium with 3% sucrose, and incubating in a growth room at 27 ± 2 °C with a 14-h photoperiod (116 μmol·m−2·s−1). Most of the cut pyrenes (greater than 50%) germinated within the first month after inoculation and achieved maximum germination (≈70%) in 2 months compared with whole pyrenes, which began to germinate 3 months after sowing and required more than 8 months for maximum germination (37%). Moreover, the germination percentage of cut pyrenes was significantly higher than the germination of isolated embryos (34%). Thus, the cut pyrenes culture is a simpler and more effective technique than embryo rescue. Easily, on average, a trained operator is able to culture ≈1000 cut pyrenes per day instead of ≈100 isolated embryos.
N. R. Dolce, R. D. Medina, L. A. Mroginski, and H. Y. Rey, “Sowing Pyrenes under Aseptic Conditions Enhances Seed Germination of Ilex Brasi Liensis, I. Pseudoboxus and I. Theezans (Aquifoliaceae),” Seed Science and Technology, vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 273–277, Aug. 2015.
doi: 10.15258/sst.2015.43.2.04.
Seeds of Ilex species are individually enclosed by a woody endocarp, forming a dispersal unit termed a pyrene. Embryos are undeveloped when fruits reach maturity. As a consequence, germination is low even after several months under proper conditions. In the present study, we present reliable and reproducible techniques that enhance seed germination of Ilex brasiliensis, I. pseudoboxus and I. theezans by aseptically sowing whole pyrenes. The highest germination percentages (53-92%) were reached by in vitro culturing whole pyrenes on solidified (0.65% agar) quarter-strength Murashige and Skoog medium with 3% sucrose and 0.1 mg l-1 zeatin, and incubating in a growth room at 27 ± 2°C with a 14-hour photoperiod. Thus, the in vitro culture of whole pyrenes constitutes an easy and efficient technique to obtain quick germination of these Ilex species and may be an alternative to embryo rescue. Rapid progress in the application of this method to breeding and preservation programmes of Ilex species is expected.
N. R. Dolce, R. D. Medina, and M. T. González-Arnao, “Tolerance to Desiccation and Cryopreservation of Seeds of Seven South American Ilex Species,” HortScience, vol. 53, no. 6, pp. 882–886, Jun. 2018.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI12885-18.
This research aimed at evaluating the desiccation tolerance and ability to withstand cryostorage of intact seeds of seven South American Ilex species, and comparing different methodologies for in vitro germination of fresh and cryostored seeds. Intact seeds were silica gel–desiccated from 2 to 14 hours, placed in cryovials, and immersed in liquid nitrogen (LN). Survival was assessed through in vitro germination of intact seeds, bisected seeds, or isolated embryos. Seeds of the seven Ilex species (Ilex brasiliensis (Sprengel) Loes., Ilex brevicuspis R., Ilex dumosa var. dumosa R., Ilex integerrima (Vell. Conc.) R., Ilex paraguariensis A. St. Hil., Ilex pseudoboxus R., and Ilex theezans R.) tolerated desiccation to ≈6% moisture content (MC) and could be successfully cryopreserved when MC decreased between 6.4% and 8.4% depending on the species, before immersion in LN. In addition, it was established as the optimal condition for in vitro seed germination of the seven Ilex species. A simple and cost-effective cryogenic procedure (which did not require the use of cryoprotectants or sophisticated facilities) was defined for seeds of seven Ilex species, which provides a new alternative for safe long-term preservation of Ilex germplasm.
C. A. Dozier, D. Kim, and D. H. Russell, “Chemical Residue Evidence in Leon Plain Pottery from the Toyah Phase (1300–1650 CE) in the American Southern Plains,” Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, vol. 32, p. 102450, Aug. 2020.
doi: 10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102450.
Archaeological remains from the Toyah Phase (1300-1650 CE), prior to Spanish colonization of the American Southern Plains in central and south Texas, suggest that foraging indigenous peoples maintained a feasting economy. Mind-altering beverages, such as caffeinated or alcoholic drinks, are a common attraction of feasts worldwide and throughout human history. Fifty-four sherds of Leon Plain ware from six archaeological sites were chemically analyzed using ultra high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). Six samples contained biomarkers suggestive of caffeinated beverage(s)—either black drink, Yaupon Holly (Ilex vomitoria) ceremonial tea, or chocolate, derived from cacao (Theobroma cacao or bicolor). Three of those six samples had duplicate results over three trials. Six different samples contained succinic and tartaric acid, sometimes associated with grape wine, but no samples maintained those results over two trials. These results suggest that Leon Plain may have sometimes been used to contain mind-altering substances, such as black drink.
A. L. Edwards and B. C. Bennett, “Diversity of Methylxanthine Content inIlex Cassine L. andIlex Vomitoria Ait.: Assessing Sources of the North American Stimulant Cassina,” Economic Botany, vol. 59, no. 3, pp. 275–285, Sep. 2005.
doi: 10.1663/0013-0001(2005)059[0275:DOMCII]2.0.CO;2.
Indigenous people of southeastern North America drank cassina, a stimulant and emetic decoction that the colonial British termed “black drink.” Though most authors citeIlex vomitoria Ait. as the botanical source of cassina, confusion persists because some researchers identify the source asI. cassine L. To clarify the link between plant and product, the methylxanthine alkaloid contents ofI. vomitoria andI. cassine were compared. Since methylxanthines (i.e., caffeine, theobromine, and theophylline) have pharmacological properties congruent with the recorded effects of cassina consumption, the alkaloids provide a chemical basis for the evaluation of both taxa as sources of the beverage. Methylxanthine levels are higher inI. vomitoria than inI. cassine, and the principal alkaloid of the former is caffeine. Based on its alkaloid content,I. vomitoria is the best-supported candidate source of cassina.
A. Edwards, “Multi-Scale Spatial Variation of Methylxanthine Alkaloids in Ilex Vomitoria Ait. : From Leaf to Landscape,” FIU Electronic Theses and Dissertations, Nov. 2004.
doi: 10.25148/etd.FI15101268.
A. G. Ferreira and C.-yeh Hu, “Light-Mediated Inhibition of in Vitro Late Embryogeny of Ilex,” Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, vol. 114, no. 5, pp. 819–823, Sep. 1989.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.114.5.819.
Abstract An inhibitory effect of light on in vitro late embyogeny of I. aquifolium and I. opaca cv. Farage was observed. A negative log-linear correlation between the final embryo size and hours of continuous light during preincubation, at an intensity of 64 W·m−2, was established with I. aquifolium. It took ≈ 15 hr of pre-incubation light to result in 50% growth inhibition. Negative log-linear correlations between the final embryo lengths and light intensities were also observed for I. aquifolium and I. opaca. The rudimentary embryos of I. opaca were more sensitive to light inhibition than those of I. aquifolium. During incubation for 11 and 14 days with a 16-hr photoperiod, light intensities for 50% growth inhibition were ≈ 5 and 11 W·m−2 for I. opaca and I. aquifolium, respectively. Since growth inhibition by light could not be reversed by the presence of GA3 concentrations up to 1000 μm, some factor(s) other than the accumulation of abscisic acid or related compounds is probably responsible for such a phenomenon.
R. Filip, P. López, G. Giberti, J. Coussio, and G. Ferraro, “Phenolic Compounds in Seven South American Ilex Species,” Fitoterapia, vol. 72, no. 7, pp. 774–778, Nov. 2001.
doi: 10.1016/S0367-326X(01)00331-8.
Ilex paraguariensis (common name: ‘mate’ or ‘yerba mate’) is used for the preparation of the most popular tea-like beverage of South America. Choleretic, hypocholesteremic, antioxidant, hepatoprotective and bitter taste properties of mate are attributed to the phenolic constituents of the leaves. I. paraguariensis has seven local congeneric substitutes or adulterants: I. brevicuspis; I. theezans; I. microdonta; I. dumosa var. dumosa; I. taubertiana; I. pseudobuxus; I. integerrima; and I. argentina. An HPLC method using UV with Photodiode Array Detector was developed for the identification and quantification of caffeoyl derivatives (caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, 3,4-dicaffeoylquinic acid, 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid and 4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid) and flavonoids (quercetin, rutin and kaempferol) in these species. I. paraguariensis showed a higher content of flavonoids and caffeoyl derivatives than the other assayed species.
R. Filip, P. G. López, and G. E. Ferraro, “Phytochemical Study of Ilex Dumosa,” Acta Horticulturae, no. 501, pp. 333–336, Feb. 1999.
doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.1999.501.52.
R. Filip and G. E. Ferraro, “Researching on New Species of ‘Mate’: Ilex Brevicuspis,” European Journal of Nutrition, vol. 42, no. 1, pp. 50–54, Feb. 2003.
doi: 10.1007/s00394-003-0399-1.
Background: Ilex paraguariensis St. Hilaire (Aquifoliaceae) (“Mate” or “Yerba mate”) is one of the most commercialized plants of South America which grows naturally in NE Argentina, Uruguay, SE Brazil and E Paraguay, where it is also cultivated. It is used to prepare a tea-like beverage (infusions or decoctions) appreciated for its peculiar flavor, stimulation and nutritional properties. Ilex brevicuspis Reisseck grows in the same habitat and is widely used as a substitute or adulterant of Ilex paraguariensis. In a previous work, methylxanthines (caffeine, theobromine and theophylline) were not detected in it by HPLC. Aim of the study: This study was undertaken in order to isolate, identify and quantify the polyphenolic compounds (caffeoyl derivatives and flavonoids) and to investigate some of the pharmacological activities of I. brevicuspis, related with the traditional use of the “Mate” (choleretic, intestinal propulsion and antioxidant activities). Acute toxicity was also investigated. Methods: Decoctions, like extracts, were prepared in order to compare the results with preparations commonly used by the local people. For the phytochemical analysis, the extracts were analyzed by HPLC with a diode array detector. Choleretic and intestinal propulsion activities were assayed in rats. Sodium dehydrocholate (DHC) was used as a choleretic reference standard. Antioxidant activity was tested in liposomes that were oxidized by the free radical generator 2,2’-azobis [amidinopropane] chloride (AAPH). Results: For the first time in I. brevicuspis the following compounds were isolated and quantified: A) caffeoyl derivative compounds (chlorogenic acid; caffeic acid; 3,4-dicaffeoylquinic acid; 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid and 4,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid. B) flavonoids (rutin, quercetin and kaempferol). Biological activity assays demonstrated that I. brevicuspis extracts produced a significant increase of bile flow (BF) in rats in the first 30 min period and in the percentage of BF increase accumulated at 120 min. It also produced an increase in the intestinal propulsion activity. Moreover, this species showed a high antioxidant activity. The acute toxicity test showed that Ilex brevicuspis did not produce any sign of toxicity at the analyzed doses. Conclusions: An Argentinean Ilex specie (I. brevicuspis) has choleretic, intestinal propulsion, antioxidant activities and these results may lead to the potential development of a new “Yerba Mate” and/or phytopharmaceutical products, without central nervous system (CNS) stimulant activity.
G. Galíndez et al., “Three Levels of Simple Morphophysiological Dormancy in Seeds of Ilex (Aquifoliaceae) Species from Argentina,” Seed Science Research, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 131–139, Jun. 2018.
doi: 10.1017/S0960258518000132.
As a contribution to understanding the world biogeography of seed dormancy in the cosmopolitan genus Ilex, we studied seeds of I. argentina, I. brasiliensis, I. brevicuspis, I. dumosa, I. paraguariensis and I. theezans from the subtropical region of Argentina. We hypothesized that seeds of these species have non-deep simple morphophysiological dormancy (MPD). Effects of temperature, cold stratification and gibberellic acid (GA3) on seed germination and embryo growth were tested. Regardless of incubation temperature, little or no germination occurred for any species until ≥6 weeks. There was an up to 3-fold increase in embryo length to seed length (E:S) ratio before seeds germinated, and embryos grew only during warm-stratifying conditions. Seeds of I. brasiliensis, I. brevicuspis and I. theezans had non-deep simple MPD and germinated to ≥80% after 12, 24 and 16 weeks, respectively. Cold stratification increased germination of I. brasiliensis and I. brevicuspis, and GA3 increased the rate but not final germination percentage of I. brasiliensis and I. theezans. Fresh seeds of I. dumosa required 40 weeks of warm stratification to germinate to 53%, while those after-ripened for 2 months germinated to 81% after 30 weeks; this species has intermediate simple MPD. Seeds of I. argentina and I. paraguariensis germinated to 15 and 21%, respectively, after 40 weeks of warm stratification and did not after-ripen or respond to GA3; these seeds have deep simple MPD. This is the first report of intermediate and deep simple MPD that is broken by warm stratification, thereby increasing our knowledge of seed dormancy in Ilex and in subtropical regions.
R.-Y. Gan, D. Zhang, M. Wang, and H. Corke, “Health Benefits of Bioactive Compounds from the Genus Ilex, a Source of Traditional Caffeinated Beverages,” Nutrients, vol. 10, no. 11, p. 1682, Nov. 2018.
doi: 10.3390/nu10111682.
Tea and coffee are caffeinated beverages commonly consumed around the world in daily life. Tea from Camellia sinensis is widely available and is a good source of caffeine and other bioactive compounds (e.g., polyphenols and carotenoids). Other tea-like beverages, such as those from the genus Ilex, the large-leaved Kudingcha (Ilex latifolia Thunb and Ilex kudingcha C.J. Tseng), Yerba Mate (Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hil), Yaupon Holly (Ilex vomitoria), and Guayusa (Ilex guayusa Loes) are also traditional drinks, with lesser overall usage, but have attracted much recent attention and have been subjected to further study. This review summarizes the distribution, composition, and health benefits of caffeinated beverages from the genus Ilex. Plants of this genus mainly contain polyphenols and alkaloids, and show diverse health benefits, which, as well as supporting their further popularization as beverages, may also lead to potential applications in the pharmaceutical or nutraceutical industries.
L. Gauer and S. Cavalli-Molina, “Genetic Variation in Natural Populations of Maté (Ilex Paraguariensis A. St.-Hil., Aquifoliaceae) Using RAPD Markers,” Heredity, vol. 84, no. 6, pp. 647–656, 2000.
doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2540.2000.00687.x.
This study characterized the genetic diversity of four populations of Ilex paraguariensis, a plant species native to South America, using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers. A total of 341 different RAPD bands were generated by the 15 primers analysed. High genetic variability was detected within each population, with an average diversity of 0.163. The within-population variation was large, probably as a result of the life history characteristics of I. paraguariensis. The average distance between individuals from each population was 0.392 and that between populations was 0.433, indicating a low between-population divergence. Most bands were common to all populations and the population-specific bands occurred at low frequencies. Partitioning of the genetic diversity indicated that 85% of the variation occurred within populations and only 15% between populations. Although most of the variability is within populations, clusterings of plants in each population were observed in the dendrogram.
G. C. Giberti, “Las Especies Argentinas Del Género Ilex L. (Aquifoliaceae),” Darwiniana, vol. 22, no. 1/3, pp. 217–240, 1979.https://www.jstor.org/stable/23216499.
Four species of Ilex L. live in Argentina: I. dumosa Reiss. var. guaranina Loes., I. brevicuspis Reiss., I. paraguariensis St.-Hil. var. paraguariensis and I. argentina Lillo. The last one grows in the subtropical rain forest of NW Argentina and SE Bolivia, and the former live in the subtropical forest of NE Argentina, Brasil and Paraguay. A description is given of each of these species, drawings, a key for their identification, a distribution map of their dispersion in Argentina, and also some characters of their foliar anatomy are discussed. Five other species are considered doubtfoul or excluded from the argentine Flora.
M. T. González-Arnao, N. Dolce, M. E. González-Benito, C. R. Castillo Martínez, and C. A. Cruz-Cruz, “Approaches for In Vitro Conservation of Woody Plants Germplasm,” in Biodiversity and Conservation of Woody Plants, M. R. Ahuja and S. M. Jain, Eds. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017, pp. 355–419.
doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-66426-2_13.
The conservation of plant genetic diversity aims at preserving as much as possible extant species by using innovative and complementary approaches to guarantee the effectiveness of the safeguarding strategies and to face present problems and future threats. The development and implementation of different in vitro conservation techniques have provided improvements for the international exchange of germplasm, for the storage of different in vitro culture forms and for products generated by biotechnology. These methods are also a valuable alternative to relieve the need of large lands extensions, where reserve collections of trees belonging to many woody species are traditionally kept. This chapter provides information of several study cases, describes some useful protocols, and aims at presenting a brief overview of currently available techniques for in vitro conservation to medium- and long-term of woody plant germplasm.
A. M. Gottlieb, G. C. Giberti, and L. Poggio, “Molecular Analyses of the Genus Ilex (Aquifoliaceae) in Southern South America, Evidence from AFLP and ITS Sequence Data,” American Journal of Botany, vol. 92, no. 2, pp. 352–369, 2005.
doi: 10.3732/ajb.92.2.352.
In order to clarify the relationships among southern South American (sSA) representatives of the genus Ilex, an amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analysis was accomplished. In addition, the phylogenetic relationships of the species were studied using ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence data alone and in combination with AFLP data, taking into account the possible existence of paralogous sequences and the influence of alignment parameters. To explore stability of phylogenetic hypotheses, a sensitivity analysis was performed using 15 indel-substitution models. Within each species assayed, the AFLPs allowed the recognition of several diagnostic bands. Furthermore, the AFLP analysis revealed that individuals belonging to the same morpho-species formed coherent clades. In addition, some cases of geographical association were noted. Studies on ITS sequences revealed divergence between data obtained herein and sequence data downloaded from GenBank. The sensitivity analyses yielded different interspecific hypotheses of relationships. Notwithstanding, analyses of the ITS data alone and in combination with AFLPs, rendered clades stable to variation in the analytical parameters. Topologies obtained for the AFLPs, the ITS data alone and the combined analyses, demonstrated the existence of a group formed by I. argentina, I. brasiliensis, I. brevicuspis, I. integerrima, and I. theezans, and that I. dumosa and I. paraguariensis were distantly related to the former. Incongruence with traditional taxonomical treatments was found.
D. Hao, X. Gu, P. Xiao, Z. Liang, L. Xu, and Y. Peng, “Research Progress in the Phytochemistry and Biology of Ilex Pharmaceutical Resources,” Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica B, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 8–19, Feb. 2013.
doi: 10.1016/j.apsb.2012.12.008.
Ilex is a botanical source for various health-promoting and pharmaceutically active compounds that have been used in traditional Chinese medicine and food for thousands of years. Increasing interest in Ilex pharmaceutical and food resources has led to additional discoveries of terpenoids, saponins, polyphenols (especially flavonoids), glycosides, and many other compounds in various Ilex species, and to investigation of their chemotaxonomy, molecular phylogeny and pharmacology. In continuation of our studies on Ilex pharmacology and phylogeny, we review the phytochemistry, chemotaxonomy, molecular biology and phylogeny of Ilex species and their relevance to health-promotion and therapeutic efficacy. The similarity and dissimilarity between Ilex paraguariensis, the source plant of mate tea, and the source plants of large-leaved Kudingcha (e.g., Ilex kudingcha and Ilex latifolia) are discussed. It is essential to utilize emerging technologies in non-Camellia tea studies to promote the sustainable utilization of Ilex resources and the identification and development of novel compounds with potential health and clinical utility. Systems biology and “-omics” technologies will play an increasingly important role in pharmaceutical and food research on the bioactive compounds of Ilex species.
J. M. Herr, “Endosperm Development and Associated Ovule Modifications in the Genus Ilex L.,” Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, vol. 77, no. 1, pp. 26–32, 1961.https://www.jstor.org/stable/24334444.
C.-Y. Hu, F. Rogalski, and C. Ward, “Factors Maintaining Ilex Rudimentary Embryos in the Quiescent State and the Ultrastructural Changes during In Vitro Activation,” Botanical Gazette, vol. 140, no. 3, pp. 272–279, Sep. 1979.
doi: 10.1086/337085.
The rudimentary embryos in mature seeds of eight species of Ilex were in a state of quiescence, or growth arrest, rather than a state of extremely slow growth. Ultrastructure of the quiescent embryo showed that the storage material, lipid and protein bodies, accounted for more than 80% of the cellular volume with a few unidentified, membrane-bound spherical bodies located in a thin layer of cytoplasm about the periphery of the nucleus. Other organelles were either scarce or absent. In vitro culture of excised rudimentary embryos resulted in immediate resumption of embryonic growth. Both glucose and non-reducing sugars (sucrose, raffinose, and stachyose) in the culture medium supported embryonic growth, while the presence of Ilex endosperm tissue in culture inhibited such growth. Since these are the major sugars of Ilex endosperm, the embryo culture experiments suggest that an inhibitor in the endosperm is likely to be responsible for the maintenance of embryo quiescence in the seed. Lipid and protein bodies disappeared in in vitro-activated rudimentary embryos. Starch grains became the principal storage material. Vacuoles, mitochondria, dictyosomes, polysomes, rough endoplasmic reticulum, microtubules, and other membrane-bound spherical bodies were prominent. The ultrastructure of the quiescent rudimentary embryo and the changes accompanying the activation of the embryo closely resemble those of quiescent mature embryos and the initial germination changes in embryos of other plants.
C. Y. Hu, J. D. Ochs, and F. M. Mancini, “Further Observations on Ilex Embryoid Production,” Zeitschrift für Pflanzenphysiologie, vol. 89, no. 1, pp. 41–49, Sep. 1978.
doi: 10.1016/S0044-328X(78)80026-9.
Embryos of Ilex aquifolium, a tree angiosperm, were excised at heart stage and cultured in Lnsmaier and Skoog agar medium lacking hormones and optional constituents. Embryoids developed from the cotyledons of cultured rudimentary embryos at different stages of embryonic development and also from the cotyledons of young seedlings. Embryoid producing capacity was demonstrated in all seven horticultural clones tested. The cotyledonal embryoids appeared to be initiated from tissue layers deeper than the epidermis. The embryoids, from heart to mature stages, were morphologically similar to the in vitro developed zygotic embryos. The coloration of the embryoids strongly suggested that rather than from a single initial cell, they were organized from cell clusters. Embryoid production potential of the cotyledon did not appear to decline after four consecutive subcultures. Three distinct types of embryoid-producing calli developed from some of these subcultures. Some of the light-grown embryoids developed anthocyanin and stopped further development. Embryoids without anthocyanin developed to the mature stage. Elongation of the embryoidal radicle would take place only after the embryoid had been excised from the mother tissue and cultured individually. Although most of the plantlets germinated from isolated embryoids were normal, certain plantlets contained light colored tissue sectors on their cotyledons. Before this potential cloning technique can be used at a commercial level for forestry, pomology and ornamental horticultural industries, techniques for inducing embryoid production from tissues of mature plant in a cell suspension culture must be developed.
C. Y. Hu, “Holly (Ilex Spp.),” in Trees II, Y. P. S. Bajaj, Ed. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, 1989, pp. 412–427.
doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-61535-1_22.
The hollies are members of the family Aquifoliaceae, and belong to the genus Ilex. There are well over 500 species in this genus. Plants in this group are deciduous or evergreen trees or shrubs. They are widely scattered throughout the world, occurring in the temperate and tropical regions of both hemispheres.
C. Y. Hu, “In Vitro Culture of Rudimentary Embryos of Eleven Ilex Species,” Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, vol. 100, no. 3, pp. 221–225, May 1975.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.100.3.221.
Abstract The heart-shaped embryos, dissected from mature fruits of 11 Ilex (holly) species in 4 taxonomic sections, grown in modified White’s and Linsmaier and Skoog’s media jelled with Bacto-agar, produced seedlings. The rudimentary embryos were sufficiently autotrophic that a carbon source was the only organic compound needed in the media. There is a great variation in speed of in vitro development among individual embryos of the same species. The average embryo length of I. aquifolium L. increased linearly and most embryos reached germination size at the 55th day of incubation. The average embryo length of I. cornuta Lindl. increased sigmoidally and most embryos reached germination size at the 23rd day of incubation. The in vitro germination percentages for most species were above 80%. The survival rates after transplanting were higher than 75%. Sub-sequent seedling growth in greenhouses was healthy and vigorous.
C. M. Hudson, Black Drink: A Native American Tea. University of Georgia Press, 2004.
Until its use declined in the nineteenth century, Indians of the southeastern United States were devoted to a caffeinated beverage commonly known as black drink. Brewed from the parched leaves of the yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria), black drink was used socially and ceremonially. In certain ritual purification rites, Indians would regurgitate after drinking the tea. This study details botanical, clinical, spiritual, historical, and material aspects of black drink, including its importance not only to Native Americans, but also to many of their European-American contemporaries.
L. J. Sass, “Review of Black Drink: A Native American Tea,” The Journal of American Folklore, vol. 94, no. 372, pp. 260–262, 1981.
doi: 10.2307/540145.
S. Isolabella, L. Cogoi, P. López, C. Anesini, G. Ferraro, and R. Filip, “Study of the Bioactive Compounds Variation during Yerba Mate (Ilex Paraguariensis) Processing,” Food Chemistry, vol. 122, no. 3, pp. 695–699, Oct. 2010.
doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.03.039.
Ilex paraguariensis St. Hil. (Aquifoliaceae) (yerba mate) is one of the most used plant species in South America due to its nutritional and medicinal properties. The industrial processing involves different stages (green leaves, zapecado, drying, forced or natural aging) which can modify the qualitative and quantitative composition and the pharmacological activities. In this work, the main compounds, caffeoyl derivatives (caffeic acid, mono- and dicaffeoylquinic acids), methylxanthines (caffeine and theobromine) and flavonoids (rutin, quercetin and kaempferol) were studied by HPLC in extracts obtained by decoction of samples of a large amount of I. paraguariensis during its industrial process stages. The comparative quantitative analysis of all the samples indicated that those obtained after the zapecado, drying and aging stages possess higher content of biologically active principles when compared with green leaves. No differences were found between the natural and forced aging processes. This is the first complete report on the quantitative variation of the bioactive compounds of I. paraguariensis during each step of the industrial processing. The results obtained in this work provide a guideline for the obtention of extracts enriched in biological principles for the pharmaceutical, food and cosmeceutical industry.
S. A. Ives, “Maturation and Germination of Seeds of Ilex Opaca,” Botanical Gazette, vol. 76, no. 1, pp. 60–77, Sep. 1923.
doi: 10.1086/333226.
1. Germination of seeds of Ilex in nature requires from one to three years, and the percentage of germination is about one in ten million. 2. Natural germination is not confined to hydrophytic conditions, as has usually been claimed, but occurs as well in mesophytic situations. 3. Stratification of the seeds is unnecessary. 4. There is no after-ripening. 5. Germination is impossible with pericarps intact. 6. The pericarps can be removed by drying the seeds for six hours in the oven at 40⚬ C. and then cutting away. 7 A 5 per cent solution of dextrose is an efficient forcing agent. 8. The permeability of the seed coats to sugar can be increased by treating with dilute KOH solutions, which act upon the suberized tegmen. 9. A sugary substratum kept moist with tap water produced hypocotyl protrusion in about five months
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A. King, T. G. Powis, K. F. Cheong, and N. W. Gaikwad, “Cautionary Tales on the Identification of Caffeinated Beverages in North America,” Journal of Archaeological Science, vol. 85, pp. 30–40, Sep. 2017.
doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2017.06.006.
In recent years several studies have attempted to understand the use of caffeinated beverages in North America before the coming of Europeans using absorbed residues. These studies have focused on the two key plant sources of caffeine in North America: Theobroma cacao (cacao) and Ilex vomitoria (yaupon holly). The authors initiated a study to explore the possibility that one or both plants were used at the Mississippian period (900–1600 CE) center of Etowah in northern Georgia. In the process, a series of problems with methodologies in use were revealed. Key among those were limitations on the methods used to identify ancient caffeinated beverage residues, distinguish them from modern contamination, and differentiate residues made by each plant. In this paper we explore what our data from the Etowah site reveal about methodologies currently in use and make suggestions for future studies of residues created by caffeinated beverages in North America.
C. R. Lambert, F. A. Blazich, and A. V. LeBude, “Propagation of Ilex Vomitoria ‘Dare County’ by Stem Cuttings,” Journal of Environmental Horticulture, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 55–57, Jun. 2012.
doi: 10.24266/0738-2898.30.2.55.
Semi-hardwood or hardwood stem cuttings of Ilex vomitoria Sol. ex Ait. ‘Dare County’ [‘Dare County’ yaupon holly (syn. ‘Virginia Dare’ yaupon holly)] were treated with solutions of the potassium (K) salt (K-salt) of indolebutyric acid (K-IBA) at 0 to 8000 mg liter−1 (ppm). Nontreated semi-hardwood cuttings rooted at 78% whereas, regardless of auxin treatment, hardwood cuttings taken on two dates rooted at 15%. Treatment of cuttings with K-IBA was generally ineffective and resulted in a linear decrease (P ≤ 0.05) in percent rooting of semi-hardwood cuttings.
Four color photographs of Ilex (also known as possum haw or yaupon), ashrub or small tree from the Holly family found commonly in San Antonio and around the Guadalupe, Mission, and San Antonio rivers.
C. Luna, P. Sansberro, L. Mroginski, and J. Tarragó, “Micropropagation of Ilex Dumosa (Aquifoliaceae) from Nodal Segments in a Tissue Culture System,” Biocell, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 205–212, Aug. 2003.
doi: 10.32604/biocell.2003.27.205.
J. A. M. Macedo, “Desenvolvimento De Estratégias Para a Conservação De Ilex Perado Ssp. Azorica Tutin: Multiplicação Por Via Vegetativa E Ecofisiologia Da Germinação Das Sementes.”
Z. McGrady, H. M. Fuller, and M. K. Murphy, “Determination of the Caffeine Content in Native American Black Tea Made from Ilex Vomitoria.”
Caffeine content in yaupon, the Native American Black Tea made from the leaves of the southeastern holly tree Ilex vomitoria, was analyzed in homemade and commercial yaupon tea. Homemade yaupon was made according to European literature accounts of the tea and its uses, and commercial yaupon was purchased and made from Cat Spring Tea, Inc. in Texas. UV spectrophotometric studies showed caffeine content in the ceremonial tea to contain enough caffeine to induce vomiting, based upon the volume of tea reportedly ingested by southeastern Native Americans prior to battle.
J. M. McPherson, “A Field Study of Winter Fruit Preferences of Cedar Waxwings,” The Condor, vol. 89, no. 2, p. 293, May 1987.
doi: 10.2307/1368482.
J. S. Meadows, F. T. Bonner, and J. D. Haywood, “Soil-Seed Bank Survival in Forests of the Southern United States,” New Forests, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 335–345, Nov. 2006.
doi: 10.1007/s11056-006-9007-6.
We evaluated the longevity of seeds of 12 common woody species buried in fresh condition in the forest floor at three forest locations in Mississippi and Louisiana. Seed samples of each species were retrieved annually for 5 years from each location. Germination and tetrazolium chloride staining tests were conducted on the samples to determine germinative capacity. When averaged across all species, seeds remained viable longer at the Alexandria, Louisiana site than at the two sites in Mississippi. Seeds of the 12 species varied widely in their response to burial. Some species, such as American beautyberry (Callicarpa americana L.), muscadine grape (Vitis rotundifolia Michx.), and sugarberry (Celtis laevigata Willd.), had relatively high germinative capacities (from 33 to 60 percent, depending on species) even after burial in the forest floor for 5 years, whereas other species, such as flowering dogwood (Cornus florida L.) and yaupon (Ilex vomitoria Ait.), had very low germinative capacities (less than 6 percent) by the end of the first year after burial. Species were classified into five groups based on their similarity of response.
Este estudo foi desnvolvido com o objetivo de verificar o comportamento das sementes de Ilex paraguariensis, submetidas a niveis crescentes de desidratacao e posterior avaliacao de viabilidade. Sementes de I. paraguariensis fora colhidas em Ivai, PR, em fevereiro de 1998. Em marco desse ano, as sementes foram acondicionadas em sacos de papel "kraft" e submetidas as condicoes de camara seca (14. C +- 1. C e 38% +- 3% UR), para secagem, por sete semanas, com avaliacoes semanais do teor de agua e da viabilidade pelo teste de tetrazolio. Parte das sementes provenientes de cada periodo de secagem foi estratificada em areia, em condicoes de casa de vegetacao, por 200 dias. O experimento foi conduzido em delineamento inteiramente casualizado, com 3 repeticoes de 25 sementes para o teste de tetrazolio e 3 repeticoes de 2 g para a determinacao do teor de agua. Nesse periodo, as sementes foram avaliadas quanto a sua viabilidade e desenvolvimento morfologico dos embrioes. Observou-se, no priemro estudo, que sementes de I. paraguariensis suportaram secagem ao nivel de 5,9% de umidade, apresentando nesse teor de agua 38,7% de viabilidade, permitindo-se concluir que possuem comportamento ortodoxo. Na segunda parte do estudo, com as sementes estratificadas, verificou-se que a secagem afetou o desenvolvimento morfologico dos embrioes. A Medida em que aumentou o periodo de secagem, maior foi a taxa de de embrioes em fase de pos-coracao, com 34,9% de embrioes viaveis, apos 7 semanas de armazenamento em camara seca.
R. E. Meyer and R. W. Bovey, “Response of Yaupon (Ilex Vomitoria) and Understory Vegetation to Herbicides,” Weed Science, vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 415–419, May 1985.
doi: 10.1017/S0043174500082539.
Yaupon (Ilex vomitoria Ait. ♯ ILEVO) in the Post Oak Savannah of Texas was treated with liquid and dry formulations of herbicides. Sprays of Bay Met 1486 {N-[5-(ethylsulfonyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]-N, N′-dimethylurea} and picloram (4-amino-3,5,6-trichloropicolinic acid), sprays and pellets of tebuthiuron {N-[5-(1,1-dimethylethyl)-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]-N,N′-dimethylurea}, and boluses of hexazinone [3-cyclohexyl-6-(dimethylamino)-1-methyl-1,3,5-triazine-2,4(1N,3H)-dione] at 4.5 kg ae or ai/ha were the most effective treatments, reducing the canopy 87 to 99% and killing 68 to 93% of the yaupon after 2 yr. The percentage of dead yaupon after 1 yr was similar to that found 2 or 3 yr after treatment. Most herbicides, except clopyralid (3,6-dichloro-2-pyridinecarboxylic acid), reduced the yaupon canopy sufficiently to allow an increase in understory grass and broadleaf vegetation, particularly 1 yr after treatment.
M. C. Mireski, R. S. Guedes, I. Wendling, M. L. P. Peña, and A. C. de S. Medeiros, “Secagem na viabilidade e desenvolvimento embrionário de sementes de Ilex paraguariensis,” Ciência Florestal, vol. 29, pp. 1354–1362, 2019-Jul-Sep.
doi: 10.5902/1980509824451.
Resumo A germinação de erva-mate tem sido apontada como baixa, irregular e lenta, com diferentes graus de dormência, tornando a produção de mudas um grande desafio. Estudos destinados a esclarecer os principais mecanismos de dormência presentes em sementes de erva-mate são de grande importância, porém, escassos. Diante disso, objetivou-se avaliar os efeitos da secagem na viabilidade e no desenvolvimento embrionário de sementes da espécie. A avaliação do efeito da secagem foi realizada mediante determinação do teor de água, teste de tetrazólio e desenvolvimento embrionário. Para avaliar a tolerância à dessecação, as sementes foram acondicionadas em uma bandeja plástica sem tampa, colocada em prateleira de câmara fria e seca (CFS), regulada com 25 ± 3% de umidade relativa do ar e temperatura de 10 ± 1°C, por 70 dias. A cada sete dias, as sementes foram retiradas da CFS e submetidas ao teste de tetrazólio e à avaliação do teor de água. O desenvolvimento embrionário foi avaliado a partir dos embriões excisados, oriundos do teste de tetrazólio. O teste de germinação foi conduzido no substrato areia, em caixas gerbox, acondicionadas em câmara de germinação regulada a 25°C e fotoperíodo de 12 horas. Das sementes que não foram submetidas à secagem, apenas 8% germinaram, resultado da imaturidade embrionária das sementes recém-colhidas. A secagem por 70 dias promoveu o desenvolvimento embrionário, mas afetou a viabilidade das sementes, sendo recomendada, portanto, sua secagem por até 49 dias para melhorar a germinação e posterior produção de mudas.
R. Mitchell, J. C. Cathey, B. Dabbert, D. F. Prochaska, S. DuPree, and R. Sosebee, “Managing Yaupon With Fire and Herbicides in the Texas Post Oak Savannah,” Rangelands, vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 17–19, Oct. 2005.
doi: 10.2111/1551-501X(2005)27[17:MYWFAH]2.0.CO;2.
Rangelands features articles related to rangeland science, and covers topics such as rangeland management, technology, policy issues, economics, and education.
L. Mroginski, N. Dolce, P. Sansberro, C. Luna, A. Gonzalez, and H. Rey, “Cryopreservation of Ilex Immature Zygotic Embryos,” in Plant Embryo Culture: Methods and Protocols, T. A. Thorpe and E. C. Yeung, Eds. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, 2011, pp. 215–225.
doi: 10.1007/978-1-61737-988-8_16.
Tropical Ilex species have recalcitrant seeds. This chapter describes protocols for long-term conservation of Ilex brasiliensis, I. brevicuspis, I. dumosa, I. microdonta, I. integerrima, I. paraguariensis, I. pseudoboxus, I. taubertiana, and I. theezans through cryopreservation of zygotic rudimentary embryos at the heart developmental stage. The embryos are aseptically removed from the seeds and precultured (7 days) in the dark at 27 \,± 2°C on solidified quarter-strength Murashige and Skoog medium with 3% sucrose and 0.1 mg/L zeatin. The embryos are then encapsulated in 3% calcium alginate beads and pretreated at 24-h intervals in liquid medium supplemented with progressively increasing sucrose concentrations (0.5, 0.75, and 1 M). The beads are dehydrated for 5 h with silica gel to 25% water content (fresh weight basis) and then placed in sterile 5-mL cryovials. Then the beads are either plunged rapidly in liquid nitrogen where they are kept for 1 h (rapid cooling), or cooled at 1°C/min to −30°C and then immersed in liquid nitrogen for 1 h (slow cooling). After cryopreservation, the beads are rewarmed by immersion of the cryovials for 1 min in a water bath at 30°C. Finally, the beads are transferred onto culture medium (1/4MS, 3% sucrose, and 0.1 mg/L zeatin, solidified with 0.8% agar) and incubated in a growth room at 27 \,± 2°C under a 14-h light (116 μmol/m2/s) and 10-h dark photoperiod. Maximum recovery percentages between 15 and 83% (depending on the species and the treatment) were obtained with the cryopreserved embryos.
L. A. Mroginski, P. A. Sansberro, A. M. Scocchi, C. V. Luna, and H. Y. Rey, “Effect of Fruit Cryopreservation on in Vitro Germination of Zygotic Embryos of Several Species of Ilex,” Acta Horticulturae, no. 725, pp. 417–420, Nov. 2006.
doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2006.725.56.
A. Negrin, C. Long, T. J. Motley, and E. J. Kennelly, “LC-MS Metabolomics and Chemotaxonomy of Caffeine-Containing Holly (Ilex) Species and Related Taxa in the Aquifoliaceae,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 67, no. 19, pp. 5687–5699, May 2019.
doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b07168.
Ilex species have been consumed traditionally as medicinal teas worldwide. Though the presence of caffeine has been reported in several species, little is known about secondary-metabolite diversity within and among these taxa. Leaf samples of Ilex guayusa, Ilex paraguariensis, and Ilex vomitoria were analyzed by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry and comparative metabolite profiling with Ilex cassine and other Ilex species to identify chemotaxonomic markers, delimit species, and provide an assessment of chemodiversity. Purine alkaloids were detected and quantified in I. guayusa, I. paraguariensis, and I. vomitoria. Reports of caffeine for I. cassine were not corroborated, suggesting that I. vomitoria was the traditional source of the Native North American tea yaupon. The tetramethyluric acid, theacrine, was detected for the first time in the genus Ilex as a low-level chemotaxonomic marker in I. vomitoria samples. Chemotaxonomy and metabolomics support a close relationship for caffeine-containing Ilex species.
S. O. Nelson, R. W. Bovey, and L. E. Stetson, “Germination Response of Some Woody Plant Seeds to Electrical Treatment,” Weed Science, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 286–291, May 1978.
doi: 10.1017/S0043174500049924.
Seed lots of Macartney rose (Rosa bracteata Wendl.), yaupon (Ilex vomitoria Ait.) huisache [Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.], and honey mesquite [Prosopis juliflora (Swartz) DC. var. glandulosa (Torr.) Cockerell] were exposed for various periods to radiofrequency (RF) dielectric heating by electromagnetic fields of 10 and 39 megahertz (MHz) at various field intensities in attempts to increase their germination. Both continuous-wave and pulse-modulated exposures were used at 39 MHz. Seed samples were preconditioned at temperatures from 24 to −43 C before exposure. Sixty-Hz a-c and d-c electrical treatments were included in some experiments. Although significant increases in germination were obtained by RF treatment of huisache and honey mesquite seed in some experiments, results with different huisache seed lots were inconsistent. The germination of Macartney rose seed was not increased, and no germination was observed in yaupon, regardless of the treatment employed.
C. E. S. A. R. O. T. T. O. NIKLAS, “Estudios Embriologicos Y Citologicos En La Yerba Mate Ilex Paraguariensis (Aquifoliaceae),” Bonplandia, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 45–56, 1987.https://www.jstor.org/stable/43574277.
The chromosome counts of Ilex paraguariensis St. Hil. confirmed the number 2n=40 for all the material studied. In the analysis of the meiosis it was proved that it has a normal behaviour, presenting 20 II. In the pollen analyzed about 100% of fertility was found. It was established that the embryo sac is of the Polygonum type. When the fruit is ripe, the embryos are in different stages: globular 2,6%; heart 70,24%; post heart 23,3%; torpedo 2,62% and mature 0,96% . These embryos continue growing when the seed is on conditions to germinate, this is the reason of the slow development observed in the germination.
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“Determination Of Saponin And Various Chemical Compounds In Camellia Sinensis And Genus Ilex.”
Saponin content was determined using an HPLC method. Since saponin contains significant antioxidant capacity, determination of saponin content in various tea products would be important due to its potential value. Saponin content was highest in yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria) compared to the teas from Camellia sinensis.
Plant Disease Reporter. Department of Agriculture, Science and Education Administration, Federal Research, 1979.
“Recursos Fitogenéticos Relacionados Con El Cultivo Y Explotación De La Yerba Mate (Ilex Paraguariensis St. Hil., Aquifoliáceas) En El Cono Sur De América | International Society for Horticultural Science.” .http://www.actahort.org/books/500/500_20.htm.
Yanpon ilex vomitoria is an evergreen shrub or small tree that is common in the moist pine and hardwood forests of the south Atlantic-Gulf Coastal Plain and the savanna scrublands of east- central Texas. Ilex the largest genus of the family Aquifoliaceae, contains 14 species native to the United States Harrar and Harrar 1962. Of the 6 holly species found in the southern United States, including American holly L opaca, dahoon L cassine, and possumhaw I. decidua, yauipon is the most valuable to wildlife Halls and Ripley 1961. Its thicket-forming characteristics make it excellent cover for many birds, and its fruits and foliage provide a year-round food source for white-tailed deer Halls 1977. Yaupon has no commercial timber value, but its bright red ftuits and dark green foliage often used for Christmas decorations give it ornamental value as a landscaping plant vines 1960. Dried yaupon leaves, which have a high caffeine content, were transitionally brewed by Native Americans in a bitter, medicinal tea called black drink or cassine Wines 1960, Bailey and Bailey 1976. The long history of this tea Spanish explorers recorded its use by east Texas natives in the early 1500s originated several local names for yanpon, including emetic holly, south-sea tea, Carolina tea, Appalachian tea, Indian black drink, chocolato del Indio, and Yopan del Indio. Other common names for yaupon are evergreen holly, evergreen cassena, yapon, yopan, cassena, cassine, cassio-berry bush, and Christmas berry Vines 1960.
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G. D. Noratto, Y. Kim, S. T. Talcott, and S. U. Mertens-Talcott, “Flavonol-Rich Fractions of Yaupon Holly Leaves (Ilex Vomitoria, Aquifoliaceae) Induce microRNA-146a and Have Anti-Inflammatory and Chemopreventive Effects in Intestinal Myofribroblast CCD-18Co Cells,” Fitoterapia, vol. 82, no. 4, pp. 557–569, Jun. 2011.
doi: 10.1016/j.fitote.2011.01.013.
Polyphenolics extracted from yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria, Aquifoliaceae) (YH) leaves were investigated in human colon cells for their chemopreventive and anti-inflammatory activities. An activity-guided fractionation allowed the selection of YH flavonol-rich fraction due to its preferential inhibition of HT-29 colon cancer viability over the normal CCD-18Co colon cells. Quercetin and kaempferol 3-rutinosides, main components identified in this fraction, protected CCD-18Co cells against reactive oxidative species (ROS) in part due to increased activity of antioxidant enzymes. In addition, up-regulation of microRNA-146a (miR-146a) known as a negative regulator of pro-inflammatory NF-κB activation was the underlying molecular mechanism that protected CCD-18Co from inflammation.
M. J. Palumbo, S. T. Talcott, and F. E. Putz, “Ilex Vomitoria Ait. (Yaupon): A Native North American Source of a Caffeinated and Antioxidant-Rich Tea,” Economic Botany, vol. 63, no. 2, pp. 130–137, Jun. 2009.
doi: 10.1007/s12231-009-9078-3.
Ilex VomitoriaAit. (Yaupon): A Native North American Source of a Caffeinated and Antioxidant-Rich Tea. Yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria Ait.) is a caffeine-containing shrub native to the southeastern United States where its leaves and twigs were traditionally used to prepare a stimulating and healthful beverage by Amerindians and more recent colonists. For a variety of mostly socioeconomic and cultural reasons, widespread consumption of yaupon tea ceased by the late 19th century, but the species is widely used in ornamental horticulture. Given the environmental damage associated with other caffeine crops, we believe that disuse of this species is unfortunate, and we report on traits that consumers may consider valuable. We found that total foliar biomass, caffeine, and antioxidant production all increased with nitrogen fertilization in one common ornamental yaupon cultivar, ‘Nana.’ Increasing light availability was associated with increased antioxidant activity but not with the decreased caffeine production predicted by the carbon/nutrient balance hypothesis for secondary metabolite production. We also found the highest caffeine concentrations in another yaupon cultivar, ‘Pendula,’ but suggest that the wide range of chemical variation offered by wild-type yaupon populations renders them more suitable as sources for the development of high caffeine-producing varieties. The results of this study suggest that yaupon is a viable caffeine alternative for North Americans living within its range on the southeastern coastal plain.
M. J. Palumbo, F. E. Putz, and S. T. Talcott, “Nitrogen Fertilizer and Gender Effects on the Secondary Metabolism of Yaupon, a Caffeine-Containing North American Holly,” Oecologia, vol. 151, no. 1, pp. 1–9, Feb. 2007.
doi: 10.1007/s00442-006-0574-1.
Yaupon (Ilex vomitoria) is a caffeine-containing dioecious shrub native to the southeastern United States that was historically brewed into a stimulating beverage. We tested predictions of the carbon/nutrient balance (CNB) hypothesis by determining whether nitrogen availability and gender influence production of caffeine and related alkaloids as well as phenolic compounds in leaves of pot-grown yaupon plants fertilized with ammonium nitrate. The CNB hypothesis predicts that additional nitrogen should result in increased alkaloid concentrations and decreased phenolic concentrations. An extension of the CNB hypothesis to dioecious plants predicts that females have higher C/N ratios and therefore higher phenolic concentrations and lower alkaloid concentrations than male conspecifics. In our study, caffeine and total alkaloid concentrations were 5–10 times higher in fertilized than control plants but did not vary by gender. Nevertheless, an observed interaction between gender and fertilization suggests that females respond more to fertilization than males in caffeine production. In addition, fertilized plants not only contained higher concentrations of alkaloids and total nitrogen but also allocated a larger proportion of their nitrogen to alkaloid production than control plants. Total phenolic concentrations were higher in control females than control males as predicted by the CNB hypothesis, but did not vary by treatment nor were there differences by gender among fertilized plants. We also found high correlations between antioxidant capacity and both classes of phenolic compounds detected in our study (cinnamic acid derivatives and flavonoids) indicating that in addition to their putative defensive function against herbivores, phenolics protect yaupon from oxidative stress. Explanation of the inconsistencies between our data and predictions of the CNB hypothesis may benefit from a re-appraisal of the physiological mechanisms by which resource availability affects secondary metabolism as well as consideration of the selective pressures to which secondary metabolism responds.
A. J. Pertuit, “Effect of Container Type and Expanded Polyethylene Mulch on Soil Temperature, Root Growth, and Survival of Dwarf Yaupon Holly1,” Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, vol. 97, no. 6, pp. 689–691, Nov. 1972.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.97.6.689.
Abstract We evaluated effects of plastic and polystyrene containers, double-walled combinations of them and expanded polyethylene disc mulches on soil temp, root growth, and winter survival of Dwarf Yaupon Holly (Ilex vomitoria, Ait. cv. Nana). All container treatments resulted in greater plant survival than did single, plastic pots. Double plastic pots resulted in the greatest amount of root growth. Regardless of container type or combination, mulching increased root growth. The influence of containers and mulch on soil temp, as affected by ambient temp, was determined under controlled conditions. Some treatments insulated the soil, influencing the rate of temp change and the hr required for the soil to freeze and thaw.
F. B. Power and V. K. Chesnut, “Ilex Vomitoria as a Native Source of Caffeine,” Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 188, no. 3, p. 405, Sep. 1919.
doi: 10.1016/S0016-0032(19)90119-0.
Species of Coleophoma have been reported as plant pathogenic, saprobic or endophytic on a wide host range. The genus is characterised by having pycnidial conidiomata, phialidic conidiogenous cells intermingled among paraphyses, and cylindrical conidia. Coleophoma has had a confusing taxonomic history with numerous synonyms, and its phylogeny has remained unresolved. The aim of the present study was to use a polyphasic approach incorporating morphology, ecology, and molecular data of the partial large subunit of nrDNA (LSU), the internal transcribed spacer region with intervening 5.8S nrDNA (ITS), partial β-tubulin (tub2), and translation elongation factor 1-alpha (tef1) gene sequences to resolve its taxonomy and phylogeny. Based on these results the genus was found to be polyphyletic, with taxa tentatively identified as Coleophoma clustering in Dothideomycetes and Leotiomycetes. Species corresponding to the concept of Coleophoma s.str. (Dermateaceae, Helotiales, Leotiomycetes) were found to form a distinct clade, with five new species. Furthermore, Coleophoma was found to be linked to the newly established sexual genus, Parafabraea, which is reduced to synonymy. Isolates occurring on Ilex aquifolium in the Netherlands also clustered in Dermateaceae, representing a novel genus, Davidhawksworthia. In the Dothideomycetes, several taxa clustered in Dothiora (Dothideaceae, Dothideales), which is shown to have Dothichiza and Hormonema-like asexual morphs, with four new species. Furthermore, Pseudocamaropycnis is introduced as a new genus (Mytilinidiaceae, Mytilinidiales), along with Briansuttonomyces (Didymellaceae, Pleosporales) and Dimorphosporicola (Pleosporaceae, Pleosporales). Air pollution refers to the occurrence of toxic substances in the atmosphere which results in detrimental effects to human beings and living environments. Among the most common atmospheric pollutants, Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds (PAHs) are the most common substances originated by vehicles. The aim of the study was to investigate the accumulation of 16 PAHs in leaves of six evergreen shrubs frequently used in Italy for urban landscaping (Elaeagnus x ebbingei, Ilex aquifolium, Laurus nobilis, Ligustrum japonicum, Photinia x fraserii and Viburnum lucidum). The study was conducted in two sites: a public park and a high traffic square. Six samplings were performed in a period of 26 months during Winter. The plants tolerance was investigated considering leaf-extract pH, total chlorophyll, leaf ascorbic acid content and relative leaf water content. A morphological leaf characterization was also carried out considering stomatal density and cuticle width. Phenanthrene, fluoranthene, fluorene and pyrene were the major compounds yielded in the plant leaves accounting for about 83% of ΣPAHs, the contributions being 53%, 11.3%, 10.5% and 8.5%, respectively. Such compounds are related to vehicular emissions. The analysis of the PHAs accumulation and the evaluation of the plants tolerance also revealed that the efficiency in trapping 5- and 6-rings potentially carcinogenic PAHs such as benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene in plant leaves is highest for Elaeagnus x ebbingei, L. japonicum and L. nobilis while Elaeagnus x ebbingei and Photinia x fraserii resulted to be those most tolerant to air pollution. The role of plants in mitigating traffic pollution is confirmed. Mountain forest ecosystems in central Europe are a product of millennia of land use and climate change, and this historical legacy shapes their vulnerability to projected climate change and related disturbance regimes (e.g. fire, wind throw, insect outbreaks). The transitional and highly dynamic state of present-day forests raises questions about the use of modern ecological observations and modeling approaches to predict their response to future climate change. We draw on records from the different subregions (northern, central and southern Alps and their forelands) in and around the Swiss Alps, which has one of the longest evidence of human land-use in Europe, to illustrate the importance of paleoecological information for guiding forest management and conservation strategies. The records suggest that past land use had different impacts on the abundance and distribution of woody species, depending on their ecology and economic value. Some taxas were disadvantaged by intensified burning and browsing (e.g. Abies alba, Ulmus, Tilia, Fraxinus, Pinus cembra and the evergreen Ilex aquifolium and Hedera helix); others were selected for food and fiber (e.g. Castanea sativa, Juglans regia) or increased in abundance as consequence of their utility (charcoal, acorns, litter and other products) or resistance to disturbance (e.g. Picea abies, Fagus sylvatica, Pinus sylvestris, and deciduous Quercus). Another group of trees increased in distribution as an indirect result of human-caused disturbance (e.g. Betula, Alnus viridis, Juniperus, and Pinus mugo). Knowledge of past species distribution, abundance and responses under a wide range of climate, land use and disturbance conditions is critical for setting silvicultural priorities to maintain healthy forests in the future. Leaf water characteristics of two evergreen shrubs, Prunus laurocerasus L. and Ilex aquifolium L., were followed for one year by means of the pressure-volume curve technique. Osmotic potentials of newly emerged leaves were about 1 MPa higher (less negative) than those of mature, over-wintered leaves. This difference disappeared during the first months of leaf development, when the vacuolar solution in newly emerged leaves gradually became more concentrated. Daycourses of total water potential show the most negative values for fully mature leaves. Pressurevolume curves were used to convert these field data into corresponding values for the turgor potential, which were byfar higher for old than for young leaves. Recently emerged leaves in spring may therefore come under severe stress during periods of only moderately lowered total water potentials.
F. B. Power and V. K. Chesnut, “ILEX VOMITORIA AS A NATIVE SOURCE OF CAFFEINE.,” Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. 41, no. 8, pp. 1307–1312, Aug. 1919.
doi: 10.1021/ja02229a019.
M. Rakocevic, M. Medrado, S. Martim, and E. Assad, “Sexual Dimorphism and Seasonal Changes of Leaf Gas Exchange in the Dioecious Tree Ilex Paraguariensis Grown in Two Contrasted Cultivation Types,” Annals of Applied Biology, vol. 154, no. 2, pp. 291–301, 2009.
doi: 10.1111/j.1744-7348.2008.00298.x.
Yerba maté (Ilex paraguariensis, Aquifoliaceae) is a subtropical, evergreen, dioecious, South American tree. In one preliminary study, it was observed that the functional strategy of yerba mate females, aiming to finish reproductive process, was increased transpiration relative to photosynthetic rates compared with males, on self-shaded leaves. We hypothesised that the long-term gas exchange response of males and females can evolve independently of phenological stage and cultivation type. In this spirit, the primary aim of the study was to analyse the physiological sexual dimorphism of this species, evaluating fluctuations of gas exchanges related to microclimate and phenological stages. A field study was conducted on adult plants of yerba maté cultivated in monoculture (MO) and in forest understorey (FUS), and measurements carried out in situ on microclimate and leaf gas exchange parameters. The photosynthetic photon flux density that was attained at leaf level in FUS was reduced roughly 10-fold compared with that in MO. Various leaf age populations were observed during a 2-year period at 2-month intervals and grouped into four categories: young, young-fully-expanded, fully-expanded and old. Young and young-fully-expanded leaves were the most active in photosynthesis. Leaves of female plants showed greater photosynthetic rate than those of male plants, which was expressed on all leaf age categories in MO, but only during vegetative stages previous to flowering and fruit ripening. The photosynthesis of young-fully-expanded leaves of females grown in FUS was superior to males but only during winter growth pause. The stomatal conductance differed in relation to cultivation type and leaf age but did not show the sexual differentiation. Physiological sexual dimorphism in yerba mate is shown to be plastic, responding to environmental conditions. The cost associated to the reproduction of yerba maté could be most easily met showing physiological differentiation of both sexes. A higher reproductive investment of females might be compensated for by exhibiting greater leaf photosynthesis than males that occurs in vegetative stages that precede flowering and fruit ripening.
L. A. Ramallo, N. N. Lovera, and M. E. Schmalko, “Effect of the Application of Intermittent Drying on Ilex Paraguariensis Quality and Drying Kinetics,” Journal of Food Engineering, vol. 97, no. 2, pp. 188–193, Mar. 2010.
doi: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2009.10.008.
The aim of this work was to study the effects of the application of tempering periods on the drying kinetics of yerba maté branches and on the resultant quality parameters of the finished product. Experiments were carried out in a convective pilot plant drier. Air temperature (60, 80 and 100°C) and tempering time (0, 15 and 30min) influenced the drying kinetics and the product quality (color parameters L and b, and the sugar and caffeine contents of an infusion prepared with the material). The influence of tempering time was higher at 60°C than at the other temperatures. There were no differences between tempering times of 15 and 30min. The Page model yielded a good fit to the experimental data, where the model parameter k varied with drying temperature.
E. A. Reber and M. T. Kerr, “The Persistence of Caffeine in Experimentally Produced Black Drink Residues,” Journal of Archaeological Science, vol. 39, no. 7, pp. 2312–2319, Jul. 2012.
doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2012.02.008.
Black drink is a native North American caffeinated tea produced from the leaves of Ilex vomitoria. The beverage was an important part of prehistoric Southeastern culture, as it was the only native source of caffeine in North America. The leaves of I. vomitoria were, therefore, a potentially valuable trade resource during the period. As such, the ability to identify archaeological black drink residues is useful to Southeastern archaeologists. In order to determine the plausibility of detecting I. vomitoria in residues, black drink was repeatedly produced in experimental unglazed pottery. The resulting potsherds were buried in several environmental contexts, recovered, and underwent absorbed pottery residue analysis. After two months of burial in three different soil types, plus a control stored in the freezer, caffeine was well-preserved in all sherds, suggesting that caffeine is a potentially useful biomarker for the detection of black drink.
B. T. I. for P. Research, Professional Paper. The Institute, 1925.
H. Y. Rey, P. A. Sansberro, M. M. Collavino, J. R. Daviña, A. M. Gonzàlez, and L. A. Mroginski, “Colchicine, Trifluralin, and Oryzalin Promoted Development of Somatic Embryos in Ilex Paraguariensis (Aquifoliaceae),” Euphytica, vol. 123, no. 1, pp. 49–56, Jan. 2002.
doi: 10.1023/A:1014489207888.
A protocol for somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration of Ilexparaguariensis St. Hil. from embryos cultures was developed. Heart stage zygotic embryos were removed from seeds of immature, light green fruit and treated with antimicrotubule agents (0.1; 0.2, and 0.5% colchicine for 24 and 48 h; 1; 10, and 20 μM of either trifluralin, ααα- trifluoro- 2,6-dinitro-N,N- dipropyl-p-toluidine, or oryzalin, 3,5-dinitro-N4, N-dipropylsulphate during 48 h). The embryos were cultured aseptically on quarter-strength Murashige and Skoog medium containing 3% sucrose, 0.65% agar (1/4MS), and 0.46 μM zeatin. Cultures were incubated in darkness at 27 ± 2 °C. All thetreatments provoked a diminution of the number of germinated embryos and in some of the treated embryos somatic embryogenesis was induced. Somatic embryo maturation and conversion into whole plants could be achieved by culturing the embryos on 1/4MS lacking hormones and incubated at 27 ± 2 °C, 14 h photoperiod (116 μmol m-2s-1). Mostof the plants regenerated from somatic embryos appeared morphologically normaland grew under greenhouse conditions. Only 2 plants out of 152 studied contained the tetraploid number of the chromosomes (2n = 4x = 80), meanwhile the rest of the plants had the normal diploid number of chromosomes (2n =2x = 40). Somatic embryos with abnormal morphology were also observed.
P. A. Sansberro, H. Y. Rey, L. A. Mroginski, and M. A. Krivenki, “Plant Regeneration from Ilex Spp. (Aquifoliaceae) in Vitro,” Biocell: Official Journal of the Sociedades Latinoamericanas De Microscopia Electronica ... Et. Al, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 139–146, Aug. 2001.
In vitro plant regeneration from nodal segments (containing one axillary bud) of seven species of the genus Ilex (I. argentina, I. brevicuspis, I. dumosa, I. microdonta, I. pseudoboxus, I. taubertiana and I. theezans) were readily achieved through three steps: 1) shoot regeneration by in vitro culture of nodal segments in MS medium at 1/4 strength, plus 3% sucrose and 0.65% agar (1/4MS) and 0.5 microM BA (45 days of culture); 2) Induction of rooting from regenerated shoots with 1/4MS (solidified with 2.5 g.L-1 "Phytagel") with 7.3 microM IBA (7 days) and, 3) subculture of shoot on a fresh medium (1/4MS lacking plant growth regulators) during 21 days. Shoot regeneration of other three species (I. aquifolium, I. brasiliensis and I. integerrima) were also obtained by in vitro culture of nodal segments. Shoot regeneration of I. aquifolium, I. brasiliensis, I. integerrima, I. microdonta, I. pseudoboxus, and I. taubertiana were also obtained by culture shoot tips on 1/4MS and 0.5 microM BA. Shoot regeneration from meristems of I. argentina, I. brevicuspis, I. dumosa, and I. theezans were readily achieved by in vitro culture on the same medium.
P. A. Sansberro, L. A. Mroginski, and R. Bottini, “In Vitro Morphogenetic Responses of Ilex Paraguariensis Nodal Segments Treated with Different Gibberellins and Prohexadione-Ca,” Plant Growth Regulation, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 209–214, Jun. 2001.
doi: 10.1023/A:1013391403061.
One-bud nodal segments of Ilex paraguariensis (yerba mate) were cultured in vitro in a sugar-rich medium with different gibberellins or an inhibitor of their synthesis. Bud sprouting, shoot length (assessed as shoots of less or more than 5 mm) and bud abscission were evaluated after 45 d of culture in a growth chamber at 27\,± 2 °C, with a 14 h photoperiod of white fluorescent light. There was a differential effect of the two types of gibberellins used; the double bond ring-A gibberellins (GA3 and GA7) inhibited shoot length, while the non double bond-ring A gibberellins (GA1 and GA4) stimulated shoots with a length of more than 5 mm. Prohexadione-Ca (Bx-112; a late step gibberellin biosynthesis inhibitor), at high doses, restrained bud sprouting up to 75%, but lower doses promoted shoot lengthening.
P. A. Sansberro, H. Y. Rey, and L. A. Mroginski, “In Vitro Culture of Zygotic Embryos of Ilex Species,” HortScience, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 351–352, Apr. 2001.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.36.2.351.
Plants of Ilex argentina L., I. brasiliensis (S.) L., I. brevicuspis R., I. dumosa R., I. integerrima (V.C.) L., I. microdonta R., I. pseudoboxus R., and I. theezans C.M. were obtained by immature embryo culture. Heart-stage zygotic embryos were removed from immature fruits and cultured aseptically on quarter-strength Murashige and Skoog medium with 3% sucrose, 0.65% agar, and 0.1 mg·L-1 zeatin. Cultures were incubated at 27±2°C for 4 weeks, in darkness and subsequently transferred to a culture room with a 14-hour photoperiod (116 μmol·m-2·s-1) for another 4 weeks. Seedlings with two leaves, derived from germinated embryos, were successfully transplanted to pots containing 1 peat: 1 perlite: 1 sand (v/v) and were maintained in greenhouse conditions. From 95% to 100% of transplanted seedlings survived. Chemical name used: 6-(4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-enylamino) purine (zeatin).
S. M. Scheiber, E. F. Gilman, D. R. Sandrock, M. Paz, C. Wiese, and M. M. Brennan, “Postestablishment Landscape Performance of Florida Native and Exotic Shrubs Under Irrigated and Nonirrigated Conditions,” HortTechnology, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 59–67, Jan. 2008.
doi: 10.21273/HORTTECH.18.1.59.
Although new and innovative measures to reduce landscape water consumption are being sought, traditional methods of water restrictions and plant selection prevail. Species native to North America are often promoted as drought tolerant with little information to support or refute such claims. Furthermore, species performance is unknown in maintained environments such as commercial and residential landscapes. Thus, 10 native and 10 exotic species, commonly used in landscapes, were evaluated independently for postestablishment growth and aesthetics under irrigated and nonirrigated landscape conditions. Growth indices were recorded monthly, with dieback and plant density evaluated at termination of the experiment. At termination of the experiment, canopy size of eight native [beautyberry (Callicarpa americana), fringe tree (Chionanthus virginicus), yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria ‘Nana’), virginia sweetspire (Itea virginica), wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera), chickasaw plum (Prunus angustifolia), saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), and coontie (Zamia floridana)] and eight exotic [golden dewdrop (Duranta erecta), cape jasmine (Gardenia augusta), crape myrtle (Lagerstroemia indica), oleander (Nerium oleander), japanese pittosporum (Pittosporum tobira), indian hawthorn (Rhaphiolepis indica), sweet viburnum (Viburnum odoratissimum), and sandankwa viburnum (V. suspensum)] species were similar for irrigated and nonirrigated treatments. Irrigation resulted in larger canopy sizes for two native [walter’s viburnum (V. obovatum) and inkberry (I. glabra)] and two nonnative [japanese privet (Ligustrum japonicum) and fringe flower (Loropetalum chinensis)] species. Among the native species with larger canopy sizes under irrigated conditions, all are indigenous to swamps and streams. With the exception of virginia sweetspire, plant density and dieback were similar for irrigated and nonirrigated plants of all taxa examined. Irrigated virginia sweetspire plants had higher plant density and dieback ratings than nonirrigated plants. Results indicate that, aesthetically, irrigated and nonirrigated plants were similar. Data emphasize the importance of selecting plant material adapted to existing environmental landscape conditions.
M. A. Schnelle, “Native Woody Plants of the Southern United States with Weedy or Invasive Tendencies: A Review of Common Offenders,” HortTechnology, vol. 29, no. 5, pp. 567–570, Oct. 2019.
doi: 10.21273/HORTTECH04334-19.
Five woody species, black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria), black cherry (Prunus serotina), snailvine [Cocculus carolinus (formerly Menispermum carolinum or Epibaterium carolinum)], and southern waxmyrtle [Morella cerifera (formerly Myrica cerifera)], are all native to Oklahoma and nearby states. They all have varying levels of use in and importance to the United States nursery industry. Past natural habitats and where these plants have spread to date, either intentionally or naturally, are discussed here. These native plants have migrated to or have become increasingly dominant in regions of the continental United States because of prolific fruit loads dispersed by birds and mammals, anthropogenic disturbances, overgrazing pastures, and certain species’ tolerance of environmental extremes. Potential control measures include chemical applications, timely cultivation, heightened awareness of grazing practices, and prescribed burning.
C. S. (C. S. Schopmeyer, United States, and Forest Service, “Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States,” pp. viii, 883 , [8] leaves of plates : ill. (some col.) ; 27 cm.-USDA, 1974.https://handle.nal.usda.gov/10113/CAT30962875.
R. E. Schultes, “The Correct Name of the Yaupon,” Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 97–105, 1950.
doi: 10.5962/p.168464.
C. Seoane et al., “The Neotropical Tree Ilex Paraguariensis A. St. Hil. (Aquifoliaceae): Pollen and Seed Dispersal in a Fragmented Landscape,” Annals of Forest Research, vol. 62, no. 2, pp. 157–171, Dec. 2019.
doi: 10.15287/afr.2019.1427.
Ilex paraguariensis is a dioecious, Neotropical tree endemic to South America with wide cultural, economic and ecological signi cance. However, due to extensive fragmentation and deforestation throughout its natural area of occurrence, studies on gene ow and genetic diversity are needed to drive genetic conservation and improvement strategies. Based on the sampling of all adult and juvenile trees in two I. paraguariensis populations, we investigate the reali ed pollen and seed ow and dispersal distance, spatial genetic structure (SGS) and genetic diversity using microsatellite markers. We found limited genetic di erentiation between populations (G’ st = 0.033), but signi cant di erences in terms of genetic diversity (R: 4.7 vs 3.9, H 0 : 0.495 vs 0.371, H e : 0.445 vs 0.375), pollen (10 vs. 23.3%) and seed immigration (0 vs. 3.3%), mating among relatives (t r : 16 vs 30%) and biparental inbreeding (F r : 0.253 vs. 0.345). Within populations, the genetic diversity was similar between adults and juveniles, but adults presented signi cantly lower xation index than juveniles, suggesting selection against inbred individuals between juvenile and adult life stages. We also found similar mean pollen (255 vs. 293 m) and seed (385 vs. 323 m) dispersal distances within populations. Our results show that the studied populations are not genetically isolated and some mating occurs among related trees due to SGS; however, the frequency of biparental inbred individuals decrease over the life course due to inbreeding depression. These results contribute directly to species management and seed collection and inform in situ and ex situ conservation programs.
A. J. Sharp and A. J. Sharp, “A New Variety of Ilex Vomitoria from Southern Mexico,” Botanical Museum leaflets, Harvard University, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 107–108, Feb. 1950.
doi: 10.5962/p.168465.
A. C. de Souza, L. M. de Oliveira, G. F. Souza, S. S. Schmidt, and P. P. Liesch, “Causes of Low Seed Quality in Ilex Paraguariensis A. St. Hil. Samples (Aquifoliaceae),” Floresta e Ambiente, vol. 27, Jul. 2020.
doi: 10.1590/2179-8087.096017.
Abstract This study sought to determine the possible causes of the low seed quality of I. paraguariensis A. St. Hil. Seeds from six samples collected at different sites were classified as empty, decayed, herbivorous and full. Viability was assessed by tetrazolium test in seeds filled with a visualized embryo. High amounts of empty and deteriorated seeds (54% to 93%) were verified in four of the evaluated samples, and insect attack was observed in two samples. The viability of visualized embryo-filled seeds was 83% to 100%. Low quality generally results from the presence of empty and deteriorated seeds, as well as dormancy.
A. C. de Souza et al., “Causes of Dormancy in Ilex Paraguariensis Pyrenes,” Rodriguésia, vol. 73, Apr. 2022.
doi: 10.1590/2175-7860202273036.
Abstract Ilex parguariensis pyrenes, popularly known as “yerba mate”, were classified as dormant. This study aim to investigated the causes of dormancy in Ilex paraguariensis’ pyrenes. Hence, the following tests were performed: a) Physical dormancy: rate of absorption in water and methylene blue; detection of lignin and lipophilic compounds in the endocarp and integument; b) Physiological dormancy: bioassays in lettuce seeds, detection, and quantification of phenolic compounds; c) Morphological dormancy: embryo analysis. For the absorption rate, an increase was observed in the mass of the pyrenes, however, when imbibition was performed in methylene blue, absorption only occurred in the endocarp. Lignin was also observed in the form of a sclerenchyma layer next to the seed coat. Similarly, lipophilic compounds were observed in a layer, external to the endosperm. The bioassays with lettuce seeds indicated the presence of chemical inhibitors. In the morphological evaluation of the pyrenes, only 55.5% of the embryos were visualized and they were in the globular or heart stages. Ilex paraguariensis pyrenes have combined dormancy: physical (not water absorption), morphological (due to the underdeveloped embryo), and there are shreds of evidence about physiological dormancy (presence of inhibitors); however, it is recommended to investigate the inhibitory agent.
G. F. Souza, L. M. de Oliveira, R. T. Casa, L. Agostinetto, and A. C. de Souza, “Detection Methods of Fungi in Ilex Paraguariensis Seeds,” Floresta e Ambiente, vol. 27, Jun. 2020.
doi: 10.1590/2179-8087.098317.
Abstract There has been an increase in the occurrence of fungal diseases in Ilex paraguariensis A. St.-Hill. (yerba mate) resulting from their domestication. Seed health tests may indicate pathogens prior to sowing, enabling their control. Our study sought to compare the efficacy of fungi detection methods on yerba mate seeds. Seeds from four lots were subjected to the following detection methods: BDA, V8 and filter paper; as well as the performance of asepsis with 1% sodium hypochlorite and 70% alcohol. The fungi found in the lots were: Penicillium spp., Cladosporium spp., Aureobasidium melanogenum, Aspergillus spp., Pestalotia spp., Nigrospora spp., Trichoderma spp., Fusarium graminearum, F. oxysporum and F. guttiforme. The asepsis in the seeds reduced the occurrence of contaminating organisms. There were differences between the evaluated lots regarding fungal incidence. In general, the BDA and V8 culture media showed better results in fungal detection.
R. Stalter and D. T. Kincaid, “Some Observations on Leaf Form in Ilex Vomitoria (Aquifoliaceae),” SIDA, Contributions to Botany, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 79–92, 1994.https://www.jstor.org/stable/41967084.
We report a statistical analysis of leaf form for a sample of 481 collected from five yaupon trees at Ponchatoula, Louisiana. Considerable variation exists within these "sun" leaves. Across the 5 trees, surface area varies 24-fold (22.1-533 mm²), leaf specific mass 22-fold (7.67-167.83 gm⁻²), leaf length 5-fold (6-31 mm), leaf width 4.5-fold (4-18 mm), and crenations 4.7-fold (7—33 per leaf). Leaf complexity (LC) varies from 1 to 6 Fourier frequencies, and the leaf dissection index (DI) varies from a nearly circular 1.036 to a high of 1.349. Trees in this population are statistically significantly different from each other in average leaf size, leaf mass, leaf specific mass, and in number of crenations per leaf. In logistic regression, the probability that a leaf will develop more crenations, increases with leaf size. As leaf size changes, shape remains relatively constant within this population; amount of leaf dissection does not correlate with other morphological variables. Leaf surface area is strongly related to nodal position on the shoot, middle nodes generally produce the largest leaves. Se realiza un análisis estadístico de la forma de la hoja sobre una muestra de 481 hojas colectadas en cinco árboles en Ponchatoula, Louisiana. Existe una variación considerable entre esta hojas de "sol." En cinco árboles, el área de la superficie varía en 24 veces (de 22.1-533 mm²), la masa específica de la hoja en 22 veces (de 7.67-167.83 gm⁻²), la longitud foliar en cinco veces (de 6-31 mm), la anchura de la hoja en 4.5 veces (de 4-18 mm), y las crenaciones en 4.7 veces (de 7-33 por hoja). La complejidad de la hoja (LC) varía de 1 a 6 frecuencias de Fourier, y el índice de disección foliar (DI) varía desde casi circular 1.036 hasta 1.349. Los árboles de esta población muestran diferencias significativas estadísticamente en el tamaño foliar medio, masa foliar, la masa foliar específica, y en el número de crenaciones por hoja. En regresión logística, la probabilidad de que una hoja desarrolle más crenaciones aumenta con el tamañ de la hoja. Cuando varía el tamaño de la hoja, su forma permanece relativamente constante en esta población; la disección de la hoja no se correlaciona con otras variable morfológicas. El área de la superficie foliar está fuertemente relacionada con la posición nodal en la rama, los nudos medios producen generalmente las hojas más grandes.
R. G. Stewart and D. L. Kline, “Sugar Feeding by Culicoides Mississippiensis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) on the Yaupon Holly, Ilex Vomitoria,” Journal of Medical Entomology, vol. 36, no. 3, pp. 268–271, May 1999.
doi: 10.1093/jmedent/36.3.268.
C. A. Stuepp, J. de Bitencourt, I. Wendling, H. S. Koehler, and K. C. Zuffellato-Ribas, “Age of Stock Plants, Seasons and Iba Effect on Vegetative Propagation of Ilex Paraguariensis,” Revista Árvore, vol. 41, Jun. 2017.
doi: 10.1590/1806-90882017000200004.
ABSTRACT The low germination of Ilex paraguariensis seeds and their long reproductive cycle make cuttings propagation a good alternative for its reproduction all year round, enabling to obtain genetically superior clones. Thus, we evaluated the influence of stock plants age, plant growth regulator indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) application and plant material collection in different seasons related to rooting of cuttings. From 12 and over 80-years-old trees shoots cuttings were made in four seasons, treated with IBA hydroalcoholic solution at concentrations of 0, 1500, 3000, 4500 and 6000 mg L-1. The rooting was performed in plastic boxes filled with vermiculite and carbonized rice husk at a ratio of 1:1 (v/v) and, after 90 days in controlled greenhouse conditions were evaluated the rooting percentage, callus formation, survival, mortality, number of roots/cutting and length of three larger roots/cutting. Cuttings from 12-years-old stock plants have higher ability to form adventitious roots and the use of IBA did not increase rooting potential. Autumn proved to be the most favorable season for rooting, followed by spring and winter.
Y. Sun, D. Zhang, and J. Smagula, “Micropropagation of Ilex Glabra (L.) A. Gray,” HortScience, vol. 45, no. 5, pp. 805–808, May 2010.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.45.5.805.
Nodal segments containing one axillary bud (1 to 1.5 cm) were disinfected using 10% bleach and were established on a Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium without hormones at 27 °C and with a 16-h photoperiod. The sprouted shoots (≈1.0 cm) were cultured on a MS medium supplemented with 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP), kinetin (KIN), or zeatin (ZT) at 2.3, 4.5, 9.1, or 18.2 μM. After 38 d, ZT and BAP significantly induced multiple shoot formation with multiplication rates of 4 to 6, whereas the multiplication rate of KIN was less than 2. Shoots cultured on ZT grew significantly taller than those on BAP and KIN. The height of the longest shoots treated with ZT was 4.6 cm, which was 1.6 to 2.2 times greater than those treated with BAP or KIN. To induce rooting, shoots (≈2 cm) were subcultured on one-fourth strength MS (1/4 MS) medium containing either 3-indolebutyric acid (IBA) or 1-naphthylacetic acid (NAA) at 2.6, 5.1, or 10.3 μM. Adventitious roots formed in vitro after 2 to 4 weeks. IBA at 10.3 μM produced the best rooting (100%) compared with other treatments after 38 d of culture. The average number of roots per shoot for IBA was ≈15, which was 1.6 to 3.1 times as many as that of other treatments. All rooted plantlets were then transplanted into a mix of peatmoss and perlite (1:1 v/v) and acclimatized in a mist system. Average plantlet survival was 73.6% after 35 d. After acclimatization, they were grown in a pot with Metro-mix under greenhouse conditions for 10 weeks where 95% of plants survived and grew up to 6.8 cm high. The micropropagation procedure, i.e., nodal segments containing one axillary bud proliferated on MS with 4.5 μM ZT followed by in vitro rooting on 1/4 MS plus 10.3 μM IBA, could be used for commercial mass production of new inkberry cultivars.
T. Tezuka, H. Yokoyama, H. Tanaka, S. Shiozaki, and M. Oda, “Factors Affecting Seed Germination of Ilex Latifolia and I. Rotunda,” HortScience, vol. 48, no. 3, pp. 352–356, Mar. 2013.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.48.3.352.
Mature seeds of Ilex species usually contain immature embryos and are extremely difficult to germinate. Ilex latifolia and I. rotunda, two species that are grown as ornamentals, also produce seeds that are difficult to germinate. In the present study, we investigated some factors affecting seed germination in those species. Although seeds of I. latifolia and I. rotunda could imbibe water, they did not germinate. When embryos were cultured in vitro, germination was observed in I. latifolia but not in I. rotunda. Interestingly, a transient decrease in germination frequency occurred in I. latifolia embryos isolated from seeds collected in September or October. Among five types of I. latifolia seeds that differed in the presence of the endocarp, testa, and endosperm, germinability of isolated embryos was highest. Good germination was also observed in quarter-seeds with or without endocarp followed by half-seeds. Treatment of seeds with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) had no effect on seed germination in I. latifolia. Cold stratification at 5 °C increased the germination frequency of I. latifolia embryos. In conclusion, the data suggested a mechanical barrier by the endocarp and inhibitors contained in the endosperm, testa, and/or endocarp inhibited seed germination in I. latifolia. Although no seeds or embryos of I. rotunda germinated, cold stratification in combination with other treatments deserves further investigation. Chemical name: sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
M. Thetford, D. L. Miller, L. W. Atwood, and B. O. Ballard, “Microsite and Rooting Depth Are More Important than Water-Holding Gel for Establishment of Restoration Plantings of Ilex Vomitoria on Barrier Islands in the Gulf of Mexico,” Native Plants Journal, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 77–86, Jun. 2015.
doi: 10.3368/npj.16.2.77.
Restoration of woody plants to barrier islands requires development of production and outplanting protocols as well as determination of “safe sites” for reestablishment. Yaupon (Ilex vomitoria Aiton [Aquifoliaceae]) is a shrub associated with scrub dunes and shallow, interdunal swales of barrier islands along the northern Gulf Coast. We studied the effect of microsite (lowest point of the depression within interdunal swale versus low dune ridge around swale), rooting depth (production container depth), and absorbing gel on seedling survival and subsequent growth of I. vomitoria planted at 5 sites associated with barrier island swales of Santa Rosa Island, Florida. Survival of I. vomitoria was greater in depressions than on ridges and with greater rooting depths. Survival on ridges did not improve with addition of hydrogel but survival for standard pots was increased in depressions. When outplanted in depressions with gel, plant height increased by as much as 6 cm (2.4 in) compared to all other outplanting combinations. Plants on ridges were half the height of plants in depressions in 2006 but no differences were found in 2007. Plants grown in Treepots were more than twice as tall as plants grown in round containers in 2006 but did not differ in 2007. Plants had greater canopy area in depressions than on ridges and with greater rooting depth. For establishment and growth on barrier islands, I. vomitoria should be grown in pots 35 cm (14 in) deep (for example, Treepots) and planted in centers of shallow swales.
C. D. Tormena et al., “FT-IR Biomarkers of Sexual Dimorphism in Yerba-Mate Plants: Seasonal and Light Accessibility Effects,” Microchemical Journal, vol. 158, p. 105329, Nov. 2020.
doi: 10.1016/j.microc.2020.105329.
In dioecious species, plants of different genders can show differences in vegetative growth (secondary sexual dimorphism) which can impact the quality of their nutritive products. The effect of sexual dimorphism in metabolic changes of Ilex paraguariensis (yerba-mate) leaves was investigated by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) combined with the chemometric tools of principal component analysis (PCA) and ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis (ASCA), when plants experienced diverse light availabilities during two plant phenophases (seasons). Fingerprints of yerba-mate leaves were obtained by a statistical mixture design of four components (ethanol, ethyl acetate, dichloromethane and hexane). In yerba-mate leaves harvested in the shade and in clearings during the spring, caffeine was identified as a possible biomarker for male plants, while pheophytin a was found for females. Leaves harvested during the winter in shaded areas and clearings showed the same pattern of FT-IR biomarkers as for spring harvest. The sexual dimorphism factor had a significant influence on the FT-IR spectral fingerprints of yerba-mate confirming caffeine for male plants and pheophytin a for females as possible biomarkers. Furthermore, a metabolic change in the two genders was pointed out, regardless of external factors. The use of the statistical mixture design was essential for obtaining the maximum possible diverse extraction of metabolites and to ensure greater analysis robustness. Knowledge regarding metabolites related to sexual dimorphism in yerba-mate leaves is essential to increase understanding of the metabolic role in plant functioning and in the final product quality obtained from leaves.
M. Tsaktsira et al., “Vegetative Propagation and ISSR-Based Genetic Identification of Genotypes of Ilex Aquifolium ‘Agrifoglio Commune,’” Sustainability, vol. 13, no. 18, p. 10345, Jan. 2021.
doi: 10.3390/su131810345.
The market demand for interesting varieties and cultivars of Ilex aquifolium necessitates the exploration and sustainable exploitation of plant individuals thriving in nature without human care. In this work, an effort was made to develop a simple and reliable protocol for vegetative propagation of I. aquifolium plants, with desirable-for-market characteristics, grown in a mountain area of Halkidiki, Greece, and at the same time to proceed with their genetic identification using molecular markers. From these plants, new plants were vegetatively produced which afterward were used as stock plants for providing the needed shoot cuttings for the experiments of rooting and leaves for their genetic analysis. Factors studied in formulating a propagation protocol included the season of cutting collection and the application of 0.2% 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), as well as the type of shoot cuttings (terminal, subterminal) and the application of auxin. It was found that application of NAA was crucial for rooting response and number of roots formed, whereas the season effect was not significant on rooting. Terminal cuttings treated with 0.2% NAA exhibited the highest rooting percentage (100%) and formed abundant roots (25.7) compared to subterminal ones. All rooted cuttings, after being potted and transferred to acclimatization greenhouse, were successfully hardened. In the spring of the next year, the produced plants blossomed abundantly and formed fruits (bright red berries) presenting their characteristic ornamental appearance that was maintained until Christmas. For the identification procedure, the genotypic profile of the stock plants was also investigated by inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) genetic analysis, revealing that they were genetically the same both among themselves and when compared with a certified I. aquifolium ‘Agrifoglio Commune’ individual, but they differed genetically from I. aquifolium ‘Argentea Marginata’ and I. aquifolium ‘Hellas’.
R. A. Vines, “Holly Family (Aquifoliaceae),” in Holly Family (Aquifoliaceae), University of Texas Press, 2021, pp. 308–313.
doi: 10.7560/780187-031.
Holly Family (Aquifoliaceae) was published in Trees of North Texas on page 308.
D. E. J. Walker, “Black Drink: A Native American Tea (Review),” Magic, Ritual, and Witchcraft, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 211–213, 2007.
doi: 10.1353/mrw.0.0075.
I. Wendling, G. E. Brondani, A. de Biassio, and L. F. Dutra, “Vegetative Propagation of Adult Ilex Paraguariensis Trees through Epicormic Shoots,” Acta Scientiarum. Agronomy, vol. 35, pp. 117–125, Mar. 2013.
doi: 10.4025/actasciagron.v35i1.15958.
The difficulty and length of time required for seed germination of mate (Ilex paraguariensis), as well as the pressing need for clonal multiplication of improved genetic material, has resulted in several studies related to vegetative propagation in an effort to obtain rooted cuttings more quickly and with better genetic quality. Currently, the biggest challenge is propagating and rooting adult plants selected in the field without requiring clear cutting to generate conditions for the basal induction of juvenile sprouts. Therefore, the objective of this study was to develop a method to rescue adult mate plants through the generation of epicormic sprouts. To accomplish this, tree branches of mate that were at least 19 years of age were collected and packed in trays with sand for sprouting. Different solutions containing a mixture of sucrose and indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) were sprayed in branches at 29, 22, 15, 8 and 1 day(s) before collection. We conclude that the vegetative propagation of adult mate trees is technically efficient and requires no treatment with sucrose or IBA and results in the formation of plants suitable for planting or serving as mother plants for continuous multiplication via cloning.
M. C. Winhelmann, L. J. de Vargas, J. Gastmann, L. M. de Oliveira, E. M. de Freitas, and C. S. Fior, “Pre-Treatments, Stratification, and Emergence of Seeds of Ilex Paraguariensis A.St.-Hil,” FLORESTA, vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 332–341, Mar. 2022.
doi: 10.5380/rf.v52i2.80411.
The propagation of yerba mate is carried out by seeds. In nature, birds are the main dispersers and the passage of seeds through the digestive system helps in germination. The laboratory simulation of the conditions provided by the passage of seeds in the digestive tract can be a pre-treatment alternative. Thus, the objective of the work was to evaluate the effect of pre-treatments, associating acid environment in the stratification, on the emergence of I. paraguariensis seeds. Two pre-treatments (PT) were tested: acidified aqueous solution (PT1) and a sequence of aqueous solutions (neutral + acid) (PT2). The pretreated seeds were subjected to stratification in sand (T1 and T2), in addition to seeds without pretreatment that were stratified in sand (T3) and stratified in sand and buried (T4). At 90, 135, and 180 days, seeds were removed from the stratification and taken to the laboratory. In addition to these treatments, a control treatment (seeds without pre-treatment and stratification) and pretreated (PT1 and PT2) seeds without stratification (T5 and T6), which were submitted to emergency and followed up weekly for 180 days, were included. After this period, the tetrazolium test was performed on non-emerged seeds. Seeds stratified for 90 days did not emerge, with 135 days there was 0.9% emergence, and the treatment with stratification in sand and buried (T4) had the greatest emergence (4.25%). With 180 days of stratification, an average emergency of 9.6% was obtained and the highest percentage was seen in T2 (pre-treatment followed by stratification), with 33% of emergence.
Y. Yang, D. Zhang, Z. Li, X. Jin, and J. Dong, “Immature Embryo Germination and Its Micropropagation of Ilex Crenata Thunb.,” HortScience, vol. 50, no. 5, pp. 733–737, May 2015.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.50.5.733.
To shorten Ilex seed germination time and speed up breeding cycles, immature embryos of Ilex crenata ‘Sky Pencil’ seedlings were removed from fruits at their heart-shape stage and cultured in vitro on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium or Woody Plant Medium (WPM) with 3% sucrose and 0.65% agar. Cultures were incubated at 27 °C for 2 weeks in darkness and subsequently moved to a growth chamber with 14-hour photoperiod (115 μmol⋅m−2⋅s–1). Embryos began to germinate 2–3 weeks after culture. The highest germination rate was 91.67% under 1/4 MS medium. Embryos cultured on MS medium also had high germination rates and produced the longest seedlings to 8.02 mm. Nodal segments with one axillary bud taken from embryo germination seedlings were cultured on MS medium with various concentrations of cytokinins and auxins for micropropagation. Zeatin (ZT; 4-hydroxy-3-methyl-trans-2-butenylaminopurine) increased the number of shoots and shoot lengths significantly more than 6-benzylaminopurine (6-BA). The recommended ZT concentration should be 2.28 µM. Rooting induction could be established on 1/4 MS medium with various concentrations of indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) or 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA). IBA at 4.14 µM produced the best rooting percentage (91.67%) and good-root quality. All rooted plantlets were transplanted into a mixture of peatmoss and perlite (1:1 v/v) and acclimatized in a mist system. The average survival rate was 88.8%. The rapid embryo germination protocol for Ilex crenata could save Ilex breeders at least 2 years compared with traditional seed germination.
X. Yao, F. Zhang, and R. T. Corlett, “Utilization of the Hollies (Ilex L. Spp.): A Review,” Forests, vol. 13, no. 1, p. 94, Jan. 2022.
doi: 10.3390/f13010094.
The hollies (Ilex L., Aquifoliaceae) form a large (>669 spp.) genus of forest trees and shrubs, which is almost cosmopolitan in mesic environments but most diverse in subtropical China and montane South America. Throughout the range of the genus, Ilex species have been utilized as beverages, medicines, ornamentals, honey plants, timber, and for various other minor uses. Recent studies on the genomics, evolution, and biogeography of Ilex now make it possible to take a systematic approach to understanding and expanding the economic importance of the genus, but information on existing uses is scattered among numerous published and unpublished sources. We therefore review the existing literature on utilization of Ilex species, supplementing this with information from the grey literature and product websites. We show that, despite the number and diversity of known uses, most Ilex species are not known to be utilized at present, suggesting considerable unrealized potential. We highlight gaps in our knowledge and opportunities for expanded usage. Finally, we discuss how the availability of a new phylogeny and whole genome can assist screening of additional wild species for economic potential and facilitate breeding programs for species already under cultivation.
T. Yeager, C. Larsen, and G. Martins, “373 Response of Dwarf Yaupon Holly to Fertilizer Rate and Duration,” HortScience, vol. 35, no. 3, pp. 456E–456, Jun. 2000.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.35.3.456E.
Multiple branched liners of Ilex vomitoria Ait. ‘Nana’ were greenhouse-grown in 3-L containers with a 2 pine bark: 1 Canadian peat: 1 sand substrate. Plants were fertilized weekly with a solution of 50 N, 10 P, and 30 K (mg·L–1) for either 5, 10, or 15 weeks. Then plants for each of the three fertilizer durations were fertilized weekly with a solution of either 50, 150 or 300 N, 10 P, and 30 K (mg·L– 1) for an additional 15 weeks, at which time root and shoot dry weights were determined. A control group of plants was fertilized weekly with 300 N (mg·L–1) for 30 weeks. Shoot dry weight increased linearly as fertilizer rate or duration of fertilization increased. Root dry weights increased linearly as fertilizer duration increased while root dry weights were not different due to fertilizer rate. These data indicate that duration of fertilization is important in promoting root and shoot growth; however, the largest amount of root and shoot dry weight resulted from the highest N application rate (300 mg·L–1) for the longest duration (30 weeks).
T. H. Yeager, “Dwarf Yaupon Holly Response to Fertilizer Application Rate and Frequency,” HortTechnology, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 41–45, Jan. 1996.
doi: 10.21273/HORTTECH.6.1.41.
Ilex vomitoria Ait. ‘Nana’ root and-shoot growth increased as rate of fertilizer applied from a 6N-1P-3K solution increased from 0.5 to 2.5 g N/3-liter container during a 26-week experiment. Percentage of applied N, P, and Kin the plant and growth medium decreased as N applied increased. Dividing the fertilizer among one, two, or four applications per week resulted in similar use of applied N, P, and K. Shoot dry weights for the 0.5 g N/container treatment were less than for the Osmocote (18N-2.6P-10K) treatment (2.5 g N/container), but the percentage of applied N, P, and K in the plant and growth medium (55%, 42%, and 75%, respectively) was greater than for the Osmocote treatment (31%, 15%, and 27%, respectively).
T. H. Yeager and R. D. Wright, “Influence of Nitrogen and Phosphorus on Shoot:Root Ratio of Ilex Crenata Thunb. ‘Helleri’1,” HortScience, vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 564–565, Aug. 1981.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.16.4.564.
Abstract Higher N rates applied to Ilex crenata‘ Helleri’ holly liners grown in the greenhouse increased shoot growth but-decreased root growth resulting in a greater shoot:root ratio. Higher N rates reduced the time required for a shoot growth flush to occur. Ρ at 85-500 ppm had no effect on shoot or root growth. Continued growth of liners at 50 ppm N lowered the shoot:root ratio due to stimulation of root growth while 300 ppm N caused the shoot:root ratio to increase due to increased shoot growth.
T. H. Yeager, J. K. von Merveldt, and C. A. Larsen, “Ornamental Plant Response to Percentage of Reclaimed Water Irrigation,” HortScience, vol. 45, no. 11, pp. 1610–1615, Nov. 2010.
doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.45.11.1610.
Vinca [Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don], salvia (Salvia splendens F. Sellow ex Roem. and Schult.), Dwarf Yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria Ait. ‘Nana’), and ‘Helleri’ holly (Ilex crenata Thunb. ‘Helleri’) were grown in 2.3-L containers with soilless substrates in a greenhouse. Irrigation was applied as needed to the substrate surface or applied to the substrate surface and applied over plant foliage. Irrigation for both application methods was composed of 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, or 100% reclaimed water (processed sewage) with deionized water composing the remainder. Shoot dry weights of marketable-sized plants were either larger or similar when 100% reclaimed water was used compared with 0% reclaimed water (deionized). Root dry weights exhibited a similar response except for salvia roots that were smaller with 100% reclaimed water irrigation regardless of application method. Leachate NO3-N, phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) generally decreased throughout the experiments for vinca and Dwarf Yaupon holly and were highest at experiment midpoint for ‘Helleri’ holly and lowest for salvia. Leachate electrical conductivities (ECs) were generally highest at experiment termination for vinca and salvia, whereas ECs of Dwarf Yaupon and ‘Helleri’ holly tended to peak at experimental midpoint and then decrease slightly at termination. ECs were usually less than 2 dS·m−1 except at experimental midpoint (4.5 months) for ‘Helleri’ holly. Based on the response of plants in this research, high-quality reclaimed water is a viable water source for annual and woody container-grown nursery crops.
T. H. Yeager, R. D. Wright, and M. M. Alley, “Response of Ilex Crenata Thunb. Cv. Helleri to Timed Fertilizer Applications1,” Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, vol. 105, no. 2, pp. 213–215, Mar. 1980.
doi: 10.21273/JASHS.105.2.213.
Abstract Multiple branched liners of ‘Helleri’ holly growing in a pine bark medium were fertilized at the beginning of active root growth at 300, 400, 500, or 600 ppm N with a 20N−8.7P−16.7K water soluble fertilizer. One week later, one half of the plants were fertilized again. The treatments were repeated during the next 2 periods of root growth which occurred about 6 weeks apart. The above soluble fertilizer was applied weekly at 300 ppm N to the control plants. Shoot growth of plants fertilized twice at 500 ppm N was comparable to growth of the control plants. Further, these plants received 44% less fertilizer and utilized 17.6% more of the total fertilizer applied. Extract nutrient and soluble salt levels were high during root growth and low during shoot growth except for the control plants, indicating the plant’s need for fertilizer predominates during periods of active root growth.
I. Zaions, A. P. Picolo, I. L. Gonçalves, A. C. P. Borges, and A. T. Valduga, “Physico-Chemical Characterization of Ilex Paraguariensis St. Hil. during the Maturation,” Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology, vol. 57, pp. 663–667, 2014-Sep-Oct.
doi: 10.1590/S1516-8913201402076.
In Brazil, yerba mate is consumed after processing; however, in Chile and Uruguay, the consumers prefer the cured product, which acquires a yellow color. For that yerba-mate is stored for a period of six months to one year, which increases the cost of the final product for the overseas market. This study evaluated the effect of humidity and temperature in maturation chamber on the time required for the product to get this characteristic. The changes in the color, pH, moisture and water activity were evaluated during the time of storage in different conditions of temperature and humidity. Yerba-mate subjected to higher temperature and humidity showed nearest color of the product submitted to natural storage. The loss of green color was related to the reduction in pH and increase in the moisture of the samples. The higher humidity allowed the mate to reach conditions near to market requirements abroad in approximately 60 days of maturation.