L. M. Abramova, O. A. Karimova, and I. Z. Andreeva, “On the Ecololgy and Biology of Althaea Officinalis L. (Malvaceae) at the Northern Border of Its Range (Republic of Bashkortostan),” Contemporary Problems of Ecology, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 415–425, Jul. 2013.
doi: 10.1134/S199542551304001X.
Results of 20 cenopopulation (CP) studies for Althaeae officinalis L. (a rare species in the Republic of Bashkortostan (RB)) in the northern border of its habitat are shown. The demographic structure, morphometric parameters, and individual life states are studied; life optima are shown. Most CPs of A. officinalis under study have low density (1–4 individual/m2) and an incomplete ontogenetic spectrum. The vitality type of A. officinalis CP changes from florescent to depressive. Ecological and phenocenotic optima are generally not the same in CPs. Optimal conditions for A. officinalis growth are reed littoral communities at the periphery of Phragmites australis underbrush; in communities disturbed by pasture, a decline in the state of A. officinalis CP is observed.
P. O. Aikpokpodion, “Variation in Agro-Morphological Characteristics of Cacao, Theobroma Cacao L., in Farmers’ Fields in Nigeria,” New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 157–170, Jun. 2010.
doi: 10.1080/0028825X.2010.488786.
Knowledge of available variability in a crop species provides a guide for the utilization and conservation of useful variation. Seventeen agro-morphological traits were studied in 184 accessions of cacao, Theobroma cacao L. collected from farmers’ fields (138) and field genebank collections (46). Descriptive statistics—univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA)—were used to determine variation among accessions. Multivariate analysis with principal component analysis (PCA) was done and a cluster dendrogram was generated based on the unweighted pair group mean with arithmetic average (UPGMA). The first three principal component axes accounted for 43.6% of total variation observed among accessions studied. Quantitative bean traits—dry bean weight, nib weight, fresh weight, cotyledon length and cotyledon width—and qualitative fruit traits—basal constriction, apex form, ridge colour, fruit shape, flush colour and cotyledon shape—were the most important traits accounting for the variability observed. Six groups of accessions were obtained from cluster analysis. Fruit and bean traits of Upper Amazon Forasteros observed in farmers’ accessions provided evidence of a shift from previously grown local ‘West African Amelonado’ from the Lower Amazon Forastero population. In conclusion, this study revealed some accessions with useful trait combinations in farmers’ plantations and indicated a need to conserve the local ‘Amelonado’ landrace variety to avoid extinction and to preserve the unique flavour of ‘West African Amelonado’ in cocoa breeding programmes.
A. E. Al-Snafi, “The Pharmaceutical Importance of Althaea Officinalis and Althaea Rosea: A Review,” International Journal of PharmTech Research, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 1378–1385, 2013.
Two species of the genus Althea (Malvaceae) were grown in Iraq, Althaea officinalis and Althaea rosea. Althaea officinalis contained pectins 11% , starch 25-35% , mono-, and di-saccharide, saccharose 10% , mucilage 5%, flavonoids (Hypolaetin-8-glucoside, isoquercitrin, kaempferol, caffeic, pcoumaric acid), coumarins, scopoletin, phytosterols, tannins, asparagine and many amino acids. The previous studies showed that Althaea officinalis possessed antimicrobial, antiinflammatory, immunomodulatory, demulcent, soothing, antittusive and many other pharmacological effects. Althaea rosea contained high molecular weight acidic polysaccharides (1.3 to 1.6 million Dalton) known as mucilages which found in flowers and leaves. These mucilages were composed of glucoronic acid, galacturonic acid, rhamnose and galactose. It also contained proteins, alkaloids flavonoids and minerals. It possessed many pharmacological effects including antimicrobial, cardiovascular, prevention of urolithiasis, antiestrogenic, cytotoxic and immunomodulating effects. The aim of this review is to highlight the chemical constituents and the pharmacological and therapeutic effects of Althaea species grown in Iraq.
W czteroletnim doświadczeniu polowym badano wpływ sposobu zakładania plantacji (z wysiewu nasion wprost do gruntu - obiekt kontrolny; z wysiewu nasion wprost do gruntu z przykryciem agrowłókniną; z rozsady uzyskanej w tunelu foliowym; z rozsady wyprodukowanej w tacach wielokomórkowych w tunelu foliowym) na wzrost i rozwój prawoślazu lekarskiego oraz na zawartość śluzu w korzeniach w pierwszym i drugim roku wegetacji roślin. Stwierdzono, że uprawa z rozsady w pierwszym roku wegetacji przyczyniła się do przyspieszenia tempa wzrostu i rozwoju roślin, a w konsekwencji do wytworzenia większej masy części nadziemnych i korzeni w porównaniu z uprawą z wysiewu nasion wprost do gruntu. Największą wysokością i liczbą pędów, jak również największą masą części nadziemnych i korzeni odznaczały się rośliny uzyskane z rozsady wyprodukowanej w tacach wielokomórkowych. W drugim roku uprawy metoda zakładania plantacji miała niewielki wpływ na wzrost i rozwój roślin. Analizy chemiczne wykazały, iż najwięcej śluzu (niezależnie od wieku roślin) zawierały korzenie pochodzące z uprawy z zastosowaniem agrowłókniny.
In a three-year experiment located on the brown soil of loess origin the effect of different methods of marsh mallow plantation establishment on the root yield and mucilage content were determined. In the experiment the following methods were compared: direct sowing in the field (control), direct...
S. Andruszczak, “The Influence of the Plantation Establishment Method on the Yield of Marshmallow (Althaea Officinalis L.) Flowers,” Acta Agrobotanica, vol. 61, no. 1, pp. 167–172, 2012.
doi: 10.5586/aa.2008.023.
The field experiment with one- and two-year-old marshmallow plants was carried out in Zamość on brown soil of loess origin in 2002-2004. There were four methods of plantation establishment: 1) direct sowing in the field (control object); 2) direct sowing in the field with cover of polypropylene sheet; 3) by seedlings from a plastic house; 4) by seedlings produced in multi-cell propagation trays. It was found that, in the case of one-year-old plants, all the methods of plantation establishment significantly increased the yield and the number of marshmallow flowers, as compared to the control object, but the best results were obtained when the plants were propagated from seedlings produced in multi-cell trays. Taking into account the two-yearold plants, no significant impact of the plantation establishment method on flower yield was found. On average, total yields of flowers varied from 17.2 dtha-1 in the first year of vegetation to 27.8 dtha-1 in the case of the two-year-old plants.
E. Ávila-Lovera et al., “Ecophysiological Traits of Adult Trees of Criollo Cocoa Cultivars (Theobroma Cacao L.) from a Germplasm Bank in Venezuela,” Experimental Agriculture, vol. 52, no. 1, pp. 137–153, Jan. 2016.
doi: 10.1017/S0014479714000593.
We studied physiological traits of 12 Criollo cocoa cultivars growing in a germplasm bank in the southern region of Maracaibo Lake Basin, during the rainy (RS) and dry seasons (DS) of 2007. A further evaluation of photosynthetic responses to changes in environmental parameters was done on three cultivars: Los Caños 001 (LCA001), Sur Porcelana 010 (SP010) and Escalante 001 (ESC001) in 2009 and 2010. Leaf water potential (ΨL) of most cultivars decreased during the DS of 2007, with the exception of ESC001. Maximum photosynthetic rate (Amax), stomatal conductance and water use efficiency varied among cultivars and seasons. The CO2-saturated photosynthetic rate (ACO2sat) was higher in LCA001 and ESC001 than in SP010, with no differences in carboxylation efficiency. Light curve responses of the three cultivars were similar. In all cultivars, no evidence of chronic photoinhibition was observed, since maximum quantum yield of photosystem II was high (0.77–0.81). We conclude that ESC001 has the best physiological performance (ΨL remained unchanged, highest Amax, ACO2sat and photochemical activity), and it seems to be a promising cultivar for cocoa agroforestry systems in the southern region of Maracaibo.
The subject of the experiment were two domestic population of marshmallow originating from Backi Petrovac and Pancevo (Serbia). The experiment was performed using the split-split-plot method with four repetitions, and tested fertilization with different quantities of nitrogen fertilizer (control, 50, 80, and 120 kg N /ha), spacing between plants in row (20, 30, 40 and 50 cm) with the same inter-row spacing of 50 cm, and reproduction (direct sowing in the field, production of seedlings in hotbeds and tranplatation). In case of both varieties, the maximal yield of natural root, raw peeled root and drug were obtained in both years of cultivation on a control plot, that is, on a plot that was not treated with nitrogen fertilizer. The maximum plant density (100,000 plants/ha), gave maximal yield in case of both tested varieties of marshmallow and with all variants of fertilization. During the first year of cultivation, the method of direct sowing has resulted in a significantly higher yield in comparison to the case where transplantation was applied, however that difference disappeared in the second year of cultivation. During the first year of cultivation, the content of mucilage (that is, the number of swellings) was extremely high - over 25, during the second year, it was between 20-25.
M. Bayat, A. Rahmani, R. Amirnia, and M. Ramezani, “The effect of priming and duration of priming on germination indices and seedling characteristics of Althaea officinalis L. plant.,” Iranian Journal of Seed Science and Technology, vol. 4, no. 1, 2015.https://ijsst.areeo.ac.ir/article_107273.html?lang=en.
To study the influence of different priming methods (hardening, hydrothermal, hydro priming, KCl2, CaNO3, NaCl, KNO3 and control) and duration of priming (3 and 6 h) on seedling characteristics and germination indices of Althaea officinalis L. seeds, two laboratory and pot experiments carried out separately factorial arrangements based on a completely randomized design in the Agricultural faculty...
F. L. Bekele, G. G. Bidaisee, H. Singh, and D. Saravanakumar, “Morphological Characterisation and Evaluation of Cacao (Theobroma Cacao L.) in Trinidad to Facilitate Utilisation of Trinitario Cacao Globally,” Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, vol. 67, no. 3, pp. 621–643, Mar. 2020.
doi: 10.1007/s10722-019-00793-7.
Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) accessions conserved at the International Cocoa Genebank Trinidad (ICGT) are routinely characterised and evaluated in terms of traits of taxonomic and economic interest. The resulting data are crucial for selecting suitable candidates for future germplasm utilisation and breeding. In this study, the distribution of traits of taxonomic and economic interest was examined among Trinitario accession groups, represented by 260 accessions, and compared to what pertains for the 1900 genotypes characterised at the ICGT. Among the 1900 accessions studied, the Pod Index, an indicator of yield potential, ranged from 13.9 to 92.8. Twenty-three percent of the accessions with superior yield potential (Pod Index of 21 or lower) were ‘Trinitarios’, including the best. Despite a significantly negative correlation (r\,=\,− 0.162, P\,< 0.0001) between seed mass and seed number of the accessions studied, several Trinitarios combined large seed number (44 or more) with large seed (cotyledon) mass (1.2 g or more). The Trinitarios selected in Trinidad were observed to be phenotypically closely related. Trinitarios with high yield potential, large seed size and other favourable traits were identified. They are potentially useful sources of genes for introgression into Trinitario planting material in fine or flavour cocoa producing countries, which provide premium cocoa to an ever expanding global niche market. The resulting economic and social benefits of improvement in Trinitario cacao planting material should be significant.
F. L. Bekele, I. Bekele, D. R. Butler, and G. G. Bidaisee, “Patterns of Morphological Variation in a Sample of Cacao (Theobroma Cacao L.) Germplasm from the International Cocoa Genebank, Trinidad,” Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, vol. 53, no. 5, pp. 933–948, Aug. 2006.
doi: 10.1007/s10722-004-6692-x.
The International Cocoa Genebank, Trinidad (ICG,T) contains 2300 accessions representing a broad range of diversity and geographic origins. This study was undertaken to examine the phenotypic relationships in a diverse sample of 600 cacao accessions from the Genebank. The major objectives were to test the applicability of the accepted nomenclature, viz., the definition of classes, as well as to elucidate the relationships between wild and cultivated germplasm and among accession groups. This will facilitate efficient utilisation, management and improvement of cacao genetic resources through the identification of potentially heterotic groups. In addition, information on morphological variation may be considered along with allelic richness or gene frequencies in selecting core collections, and when formulating strategies for future collections in the wild. Considerable phenotypic variation (high coefficients of variation and Shannon Weaver Diversity Index values) in the germplasm studied was found, and the main groups of cacao were clearly separated. Wild cacao was differentiated from cultivated types by all of the quantitative descriptors except pod length. Recognised genetic groups (Trinitario and Forastero) were discriminated by several quantitative traits including sepal length, cotyledon weight, length and width, and pod index. Principal Component Analysis differentiated among 14 accession groups according to geographic origin and genetic grouping. Cotyledon weight, length and number, pedicel column colour, mature pod ridge colour, sepal length, pod basal constriction and surface texture, and ovule number accounted for most of the variation recorded. The observed improvement in the cultivated germplasm, in terms of agronomic traits such as seed weight and pod index, attests to the success of past selection activities. This apparent improvement (particularly among Refractario germplasm) appears to be accompanied by increased style length, a finding that warrants further study. The reduced diversity in sepal length, ligue width, ovule number, and cotyledon length in the cultivated compared to the wild germplasm is consistent with the narrowing of the genetic base in the former. These results have significance for cacao breeding programmes, conservation and future collecting strategies.
S. .. Cosme, H. E. Cuevas, D. Zhang, T. K. Oleksyk, and B. M. Irish, “Genetic Diversity of Naturalized Cacao (Theobroma Cacao L.) in Puerto Rico,” Tree Genetics & Genomes, vol. 12, no. 5, p. 88, Aug. 2016.
doi: 10.1007/s11295-016-1045-4.
Identification of genetically diverse cacao with disease resistance, high productivity, and desirable organoleptic traits is vitally important to the agricultural crop’s long-term sustainability. Environmental changes, pests, and diseases as well as nation’s sovereign property rights have led to a decrease in accessibility and exchange of germplasm of interest. Having been introduced during colonial times, naturalized cacao in Puerto Rico could serve as an unexplored source of genetic diversity in improvement programs. An island-wide survey was carried out to identify naturalized trees and to determine their genetic associations to reference cacao accessions. Samples were genotyped with Expressed Sequence Tag-derived single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers. Principal coordinate, cluster, and population structure analysis using the genotype data for both local and reference samples assigned individuals into five distinct genetic backgrounds: Criollo, Trinitario, Amelonado, Upper Amazon Forastero (UAF), and Nacional. Puerto Rican cacao fit into four (Criollo, Trinitario, Amelonado and UAF) of the five genetic backgrounds, being mainly composed of individuals of Criollo ancestry. Based on historical evidence, cacao of Criollo background was probably brought to Puerto Rico from Venezuela and/or Central America during colonial times. Trinitario, Amelonado, and UAF genetic backgrounds are most likely products of more modern introductions. Genotyping cacao in Puerto Rico provides information on the history and possible origin of the naturalized trees on the island. In addition, the assessment has allowed the targeting of material for incorporation and long-term conservation filling gaps in the existing collection and providing new germplasm to be evaluated for agronomic performance.
E. Dehghan, A. Baghizadeh, and H. Dashti, Study of Genetic Diversity in Marsh Mallow (Althaea Officinalis) by Using RAPD Markers. 2011.
Althaea officinalis is one of the most important medicinal plant contains mucilage. In this study, Genetic diversity 15 accessions of Althaea officinalis, collected from different parts of IRAN, were evaluated using 35 RAPD primers with 10 nucleotides. Only 16 of primers revealed polymorphic patterns between the cultivars and produced a total 1427 bands and 145 loci, with 137 polymorphic bands (o.94.4%). The primer 398 revealed highest polymorphic loci and polymorphic bands and primers D and UBC19 produced a particularly band in AEs and ARab. Genetic diversity index of the primer 400(0.47) was more than the others.RAPD products were scored for presence (1) or absence (0) of each amplicon evaluated using binary method and then genetic similarity was calculated by employing Jaccard index and cluster analysis was carried out according UPGMA algorithm using NTSYS-pc software. The genetic distance values ranged from 0.369 to 0.638. The lowest distance obtained was found between the cultivars ABaf and ANeg and the highest distance obtained was found between ASa and ATe cultivars. Results showed a good level of genetic diversity among investigated accessions. The results also indicated that RAPD analysis seemed to be best suited for investigation of polymorphic loci and determination of genetic distance among Althaea officinalis accessions.
S. B. Draži, “Еffect of Direct Selection on Productive Traits of Marshmallow (Althaea Officinalis L.),” in Proceedings of the 8th CMAPSEEC, Durrës, Albania, 2014.http://amapseec.com/Proceedings_of_VIII_CMAPSEEC.pdf.
Breeding goal was to create an improved and homogenous genotype, which will contribute to the stability and higher production, as well as conservation of natural resources. As a source of variability we used selection material which consisted of the collection (ex situ) of marshmallow germplasm. Using the method of direct selection, we created 28 promising clones. Following traits were observed at the selected offspring and standard ("vojvođanski"): plant height (cm), yield of fresh roots per plant (g), plant fats, starch, sucrose and number of swellings. Clones marked with numbers 20, 25 and 26 have achieved reliably higher root yields of 20-27% compared to the standard. Application of direct selection resulted in a high selection gain for yield of roots per plant. The selection gain was greater at the selection intensity of 5% than of 10%.
S. Drazic, H. Majstorovic, D. Beatovic, J. Ikanovic, M. Sudimac, and R. Bojovic, “The Effect of Date and Method of Planting Marshmallow Crops on Root Yield and Quality,” in Agrosym, 2014, pp. 290–297.
doi: 10.7251/AGSY1404290D.
In 2009. and 2010. factorial trials with marshmallow crops were carried out on three localities in Serbia (Municipalities of Nova Pazova, Petrovac na Mlavi and Pančevo). The effect od planting date (spring and autumn) and method (seedling and direct drilling in the field) on root yield and qualitative traits were examined. Trials were set in accordance with planned design, and experimental results were statistically analyzed. Via adequate analytical methods we determined corresponding values for important root quality parameters (plant fibres and fats, ash, phosphorous, starch, total and natural invert sugar and sucrose). Analysis of variance showed significant impact of date and method of planting marshmallow crops on crop yield. Both planting dates showed reliably higher yield of dried root planted in the field using direct drilling method, compared to seedlings. The average yield was 4.015 kg/ha, while usage of seedlings generated 1.575 kg/ha. Date and method of planting marshmallow crops didn’t have significant impact on values of important root quality parameters. Average value was highest for starch (34%), phosphorous content was 11,4%, plant fibres 12,3%, total invert sugar 8,4%, sucrose 6,9%, ash 4,16%, plant fats 2,06%, while natural invert content was the lowest (1,05%). These experimental results should be used in future technology designs for planting marshmallow crops in accordance with principles of sustainable agriculture.
S. Drazic, D. Glamoclija, R. Jevdjovic, and T. Zivanovic, “Modelling marshmallow (Althaea officinalis L.) seedling production,” Arhiv za poljoprivredne nauke, 2010.https://aspace.agrif.bg.ac.rs/handle/123456789/2402.
The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of different marshmallow seedling production on its quality, rooting, vigour, development and root yields of plants in the field. Beside the conventional production methods (cold bed and growth in manure hotbed in plastic covered greenhouses) seedlings were grown in containers with a nutritive substratum. The seedling production and planting were performed in two terms: spring and autumn. The results were statistically processed. The study indicates that the seedling production in containers is more reliable (rooting, root yield) compared to other options.
S. Dražić, S. Prodanović, D. Glamočlija, T. Živanović, and D. Krivokuća-Djokić, “Variability of Traits in the Grown Population of Marshmallow (Althaea Officinalis L.),” Journal of Scientific Agricultural Research, vol. 71, no. 3, pp. 31–38, 2010.http://aspace.agrif.bg.ac.rs/handle/123456789/2383.
Variability of traits in the grown population of marshmallow Vojvođanski was analysed in two locations (Pančevo and Banatski Brestovac) during the two-year period (2008-2009). The following traits were studied: plant height (cm), number of side branches, leaf length (cm), fresh root yield per plant (g) and the number of swellings. The traits of the population were quantified over mean, standard deviation, coefficient of variations, asymmetry (β1) and kurtosis (β2) of the normal frequency distribution curve. Mean difference testing of traits was done by the application the t-test. Significant variations in traits were found, especially for the fresh root yield per plant (CV=43% and 52%) and the number of side branches (CV=50% and 72%). A very significant difference among trait means was determined for fresh root yield (g). The frequency distribution was symmetric (β1≈0) for the majority of traits except for the fresh root yield and the number of swellings. This points out to the fact that a higher number of plants (samples) had lower values for these traits than the population average (β1>0). The frequency distribution for all traits was more kurtosis (β2 lt 3), except for the fresh root yield (in the location of Banatski Brestovac) where it was more elongated (β2>3) than the normal distribution. A significant interdependence (rF=0.73) was established between the stalk height and the number of side branches. The correlation among remaining traits was weak and moderately strong (rF=0.21-0.64). .
I. B. M. Efombagn et al., “Genetic Diversity and Structure of Farm and GenBank Accessions of Cacao (Theobroma Cacao L.) in Cameroon Revealed by Microsatellite Markers,” Tree Genetics & Genomes, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 821–831, Oct. 2008.
doi: 10.1007/s11295-008-0155-z.
The genetic diversity of 400 accessions collected in cacao farms, 95 GenBank, and 31 reference accessions was analyzed using the 12 microsatellite markers. The GenBank and reference accessions were subdivided into 12 accession groups (AG) that belong to the traditional cacao genetic groups (GG) Lower Amazon Forastero (LA), Upper Amazon Forastero (UA), Trinitario, and Criollo (Cr). The 12-microsatellite loci revealed a total of 125 alleles, 113 of which were present in the farm accession group (FA). The within and between group variation for all AGs accounted respectively for 81% and 19% of the total molecular variation. The average Fis for the FA was 0.15 suggesting a moderate level of inbreeding. Significant differences for the level of gene diversity were found between the farm (0.50), GenBank (0.42 to 0.62), and reference (0.10 to 0.60) AGs. Genetic differentiation among AGs was variable with Fst values varying between 0.14 and 0.57 for the different AGs. Analysis using a Bayesian model-based method showed the existence of a high level of admixture for the farm accessions group. The LA genes were most represented in the FA (54%), followed by UA (33%) and Cr (7%). The genes of LA were also the most represented in the GenBank (48%), followed by UA (24%) and Cr (14%). Only 14% and 6% of the genes of the GenBank and farm accessions, respectively, could not be attributed to any of the reference GGs. The results suggest the predominating presence of LA genes in the Cameroon farm accessions and a high level of admixture, with apparent presence of genes of more than three GGs in most accessions. The traditional Trinitario types appear to have almost disappeared from farmers fields. The admixture must be the result of hybridization and recombination of these genes from the different GGs in seed gardens and in farmers’ fields. The use of selected farm accessions will depend on the GG that it belongs to and also on their level of heterozygosity. Further implications of the results for breeding and for introduction of new germplasm into the Cameroon GenBank are discussed.
G. J. Esenowo, “Studies on Germination of Adansonia Digitata Seeds,” The Journal of Agricultural Science, vol. 117, no. 1, pp. 81–84, Aug. 1991.
doi: 10.1017/S0021859600078990.
Dormancy in seeds of Adansonia digitata (L.) can be attributed partly to the testa and partly to the pulp. Several methods, such as wet heat treatment, total or partial seed decoating and scarification of seeds with concentrated acids, herbicides, fungicides and growth regulators, were tested in 1988 and 1989 to break dormancy. The most effective was scarification with HNO3 or H2SO4, which gave 86 and 98% germination, respectively, while total decoating, partial decoating, wet heat treatment and ethrel gave 85, 80, 75 and 70%, respectively. Seeds treated with herbicides and fungicides did not germinate. Inhibition of germination caused by the pulp was overcome by thorough washing of seeds and soaking in water for 3 days.
Khatmi (Althaea officinalis), commonly known as Marsh Mallow is one of the important medicinal plant used in Unani medicine. Khatmi is a perennial plant with light brown coloured, long and thick root, ovate-cordate, slightly toothed leaves and pale pink or pale purple coloured flowers. Root, leaves, flowers and seeds are mainly used in medicine. All the parts contain mucilage. It is having emmollient, analgesic, astringent, haemostatic, expectorant, luxative, cleansing, demulcent, concoctive, diuretic, emmenagogue, anti-inflammatory and exhilarant properties. In Unani medicine, Khatmi has been used for several centuries to treat inflammatory disorders like metritis, enteritis, mastitis, arthritis, colitis, bronchitis, gastritis, etc. It also has been used for other ailments like catarrh, renal calculai, pityriasis, tremor, dysuria, dysentery, haemoptysis, whooping cough and many more. Though, this plant is used for many varieties of disease, very few actions of this plant have been proven scientifically. Hence, this review will help to conduct scientific studies in unexploited potencial of this plant.
A. Fatemeh, S. Amir, and A. Ahmad, “Evaluation of Culture Substrate on Seed Germination of Marsh Mallow, Althaea Officinalis,” no. 2, Jan. 2013.https://www.sid.ir/paper/946857/fa.
MARSH MALLOW, IS ONE OF IMPORTANT MEDICINAL AND ORNAMENTAL PLANTS IN IRAN THAT ITS COUGH SUPPRESSION EFFECT HAVE BEEN WELL DOCUMENTED (1). REDUCTION IN GERMINATION AND DESIRABLE ESTABLISHMENT OF SEEDLINGS IS ONE OF THE FARMERS’ PROBLEMS AND SELECTION OF SUITABLE CULTURE SUBSTRATE COULD IMPROVE ESTABLISHMENTS OF PLANTS IN UNENVIABLE CONDITION...
Research conducted on different cultivars of marsh mallow resulted in preliminary results presented in this paper as yields obtained in dry farming conditions. It can be concluded that the whole root showed to have a bigger yield in domestic population Domaci in comparison to the cultivar Alba, for 590.2 kg/ha. The yield of peeled root of domestic population Domaci (5 033.6 kg/ha) was for a 21,2% higher than the yield of peeled root of cultivar Alba ( 3 967.6 kg/ha). The yield of dry root in domestic population Domaci was ca. 20.2% higher in comparison to the yield of Alba cultivar. The greater number of root swelling had herbal drug of domestic population Domaci (20.2 ml).
\relax S. Ilieva and Z. Petrova, “Germination of Althaea Officinalis L. Seeds at Varying Temperature and Light Regimes,” Acta Horticulturae, no. 96, pp. 211–220, Jun. 1980.
doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.1980.96.20.
Investigations on the effect of temperature and light regimes on the course of the germination process, the germination energy and the germination ability of seeds were carried out using five Althaea officinalis L. accessions of various geographic regions /USSR. Czechoslovakia and Japan/. The investigations reveal that all studied accessions placed in Jacobssen’s apparatus, at variable temperature /20–30°C/ in the light have best germination ability, highest germination energy and shortest period of germination. Lowest germination energy and germination ability is observed in case the seeds are placed in a thermostat at constant temperature of 20°C in the dark. Seed accessions of Czechoslovakian and Japanes origin possess highest germination energy and germination ability.
B. M. Irish, R. Goenaga, D. Zhang, R. Schnell, J. S. Brown, and J. C. Motamayor, “Microsatellite Fingerprinting of the USDA-ARS Tropical Agriculture Research Station Cacao (Theobroma Cacao L.) Germplasm Collection,” Crop Science, vol. 50, no. 2, pp. 656–667, Mar. 2010.
doi: 10.2135/cropsci2009.06.0299.
Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) is an important cash crop in many tropical countries. Cacao accessions must be propagated vegetatively to conserve genetic integrity due to its allogamous nature and its seed recalcitrance (lack of dormancy). Therefore, cacao germplasm is usually maintained as living trees in field collections and has resulted in varying rates of misidentification and duplication. Using a high throughput genotyping system with 15 microsatellite loci, all 924 trees in the USDA-ARS Mayaguez cacao collection were fingerprinted. Nineteen accessions (12.3%) were found to have intraplant errors while 14 (9.1%) synonymous sets were identified that included replicates of 49 accessions. The average number of alleles (8.8; SE = 0.56) and gene diversity (HObs = 0.65; SE = 0.026) indicate a high allelic diversity in this collection. A distance-based cluster analysis and a Bayesian assignment test showed that the cacao accessions can be classified into four distinct clusters, with their geographical origins covering most of the cacao growing regions in the Americas. Assessment of the representative diversity of the collection led to the identification of several genetic gaps, including underrepresented genetic populations and particular traits of economic and agronomic value. The improved understanding of identities and structure in the USDA-ARS cacao collection will contribute to more efficient use of cacao in conservation and breeding.
A. D. Iwaro, F. L. Bekele, and D. R. Butler, “Evaluation and Utilisation of Cacao (Theobroma Cacao L.) Germplasm at the International Cocoa Genebank, Trinidad,” Euphytica, vol. 130, no. 2, pp. 207–221, Mar. 2003.
doi: 10.1023/A:1022855131534.
The aim of this study was to identify promising genotypes in the International Cocoa Gene bank, Trinidad (ICG,T) for use in cacao breeding. Subsets of the germ plasm collection were evaluated for bean number, bean weight, pod index (581 genotypes) and resistance to Phytophthora pod rot(500 genotypes). Among three groups of cacao assessed (For astero, Refractario and Trinitario), Trinitario had the highest percentage of genotypes (36.9%) with large bean weight (> 1.2 g), while For astero possessed the highest proportion of genotypes (22.6%) with a large number of beans (> 45). The ICS population had the highest percentage (44.1%) of genotypes with heavy beans, and IMC the highest percentage of genotypes with large bean number (68.6%). A low, but significant negative correlation (r = –0.19, p≤ 0.001) between bean number and bean weight suggests that an increase in bean number may repress an increase in bean weight and vice versa. However, inten genotypes good values of bean weight and number were combined demonstrating that selection for both large bean number and bean weight is possible. The highest percentage (28.1%) of genotypes with low pod index (< 20.1) was observed in the Trinitario group (mainly ICS). The Forastero group had the highest percentage of Phytophthora resistant accessions(18.0%). The PA population had the highest proportion of resistant (24.0%) and moderately resistant (38.0%)genotypes. Sixty-five and 99 genotypes were categorised with large bean weight and high bean number, respectively, and 60 genotypes were found with a low pod index. Seventy-eight genotypes were identified with resistance to Phytophthora podrot. A significant relationship was observed between resistance to Phytophthora pod rot (measured as the frequency of localised lesions) and bean number (r = –0.45, p ≤ 0.001)showing that the two traits may complement each other. The combination of low to intermediate pod index with moderate to high resistance to Phytophthora podrot was found in 87 genotypes, 12 of which were also reported to have resistance to witches’ broom disease. These genotypes are of high potential value in cacao breeding and their inclusion in working and corecollections would be justified.
R. Jevđović, G. Todorović, S. Pavkov, M. Kostić, S. Dražić, and S. Stanković, “Effects of Irrigation on Yields of the Aboveground Biomass and Roots of Marshmallow (Althaea Officinalis L.),” Lekovite sirovine, no. 29, pp. 29–35, 2009.https://scindeks.ceon.rs/article.aspx?artid=0455-62240929029J.
The four-replicates trial with the local marshmallow population Vojvođanski was set up according to the randomized complete-block design under conditions of dry land farming and irrigation in two locations (Arilje and Starčevo) during 2007 and 2008. The elementary plot size amounted to 10 m2. The inter-row distance was 50 cm, while the within-row plant distance was 30 cm. Marshmallow nursery plants were produced in the plastic-house and were replanted to the permanent growth place during the third decade of April. Under irrigation conditions, watering with 20 L water m-2 were done each 15 days during the growing period. The following traits of marshmallow were observed: root dry matter yield, number of root swellings and the fresh above ground biomass yield. Obtained results were processed by the 3-factorial analysis of variance. Correlations among studied traits were also observed. Based on the analysis of variance it was determined that locations significantly (p<0.01) affected all studied traits. Dry root yields and the number of root swellings were higher in Arilje than in Starčevo, while the yield of the fresh above ground biomass of marshmallow was higher in Starčevo. The marshmallow dry root yield at the level of significance (p<0.05) was higher in 2007 than in 2008. The differences in the number of root swellings and the fresh above ground biomass yields were not significant in dependence on the years of investigation. The yields of the dry root and the fresh above ground biomass of marshmallow were significantly (p<0.01) higher under conditions of irrigation than under conditions of dry land farming. On the other hand, the number of root swellings of marshmallow was significantly (p<0.05) higher under conditions of dry land farming than under irrigation. A strong positive (r = 0.81**) correlation was established between dry root yields and fresh above ground biomass yields. A week negative correlation (r = -0.48**) was determined between dry root yields and the number of root swellings, while a moderate negative correlation (r = -0.59**) was recorded between fresh above ground biomass yields and the number of root swellings of marshmallow. .
N. Kane et al., “Ultra-Barcoding in Cacao (Theobroma Spp.; Malvaceae) Using Whole Chloroplast Genomes and Nuclear Ribosomal DNA,” American Journal of Botany, vol. 99, no. 2, pp. 320–329, 2012.
doi: 10.3732/ajb.1100570.
• Premise of study: To reliably identify lineages below the species level such as subspecies or varieties, we propose an extension to DNA-barcoding using next-generation sequencing to produce whole organellar genomes and substantial nuclear ribosomal sequence. Because this method uses much longer versions of the traditional DNA-barcoding loci in the plastid and ribosomal DNA, we call our approach ultra-barcoding (UBC). • Methods: We used high-throughput next-generation sequencing to scan the genome and generate reliable sequence of high copy number regions. Using this method, we examined whole plastid genomes as well as nearly 6000 bases of nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences for nine genotypes of Theobroma cacao and an individual of the related species T. grandiflorum, as well as an additional publicly available whole plastid genome of T. cacao. • Key results: All individuals of T. cacao examined were uniquely distinguished, and evidence of reticulation and gene flow was observed. Sequence variation was observed in some of the canonical barcoding regions between species, but other regions of the chloroplast were more variable both within species and between species, as were ribosomal spacers. Furthermore, no single region provides the level of data available using the complete plastid genome and rDNA. • Conclusions: Our data demonstrate that UBC is a viable, increasingly cost-effective approach for reliably distinguishing varieties and even individual genotypes of T. cacao. This approach shows great promise for applications where very closely related or interbreeding taxa must be distinguished.
S. Khorramdel, P. Rezvani Moghaddam, H. Azizi, J. Shabahang, and S. M. Seyedi, “Evaluation of the Integrated Effect of Organic, Chemical and Biological Fertilizers on Yield of Marshmallow (Althea Officinalis L.) as a Medicinal Plant,” Journal Of Agroecology, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 603–620, Dec. 2018.
doi: 10.22067/jag.v10i3.28104.
Introduction Medicinal plants have an important role in different industries. So, increasing production of their yields is necessary. Medicinal plants contain phytochemical compounds which have demonstrated bioactive properties. The active principles of the plants are generally secondary metabolites. The use of ecological farming methods, may improve yield and quality. In the last decade, agricultural production, which is mainly based on the use of chemical material, is causing environmental problems. One of the pathways to mitigate this environmental impacts, is to apply the long-term approaches based on the principles of ecological agriculture. Soil microorganisms are the primary metabolites production in the soil can affect the results in the release of phosphorus. Compost can be used as an organic matter in controlling different types of debris and the reduction in fertilizer consumption in agricultural products and mineral absorption elements improve low consumption by plants. Present study aims to investigate the possibility of improving the growth, flower yield, shoot yield, seed yield and yield components of marshmallow as a medicinal plant affected as integrated management of organic, chemical and biological fertilizers. Materials and Methods A field experiment was performed as factorial layout based on a randomized complete block design with three replications at Agricultural Research Station, College of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran, during growing season of 2012-2013. The experimental treatments were all combination of organic and chemical fertilizers in four levels (cow manure (40 ton.ha-1), urban compost (40 ton.ha-1), NPK as chemical fertilizer (114, 18 and 220, 40 kg.ha-1) and control) and inoculation with Thiobacillus and sulphur application in four levels (including inoculation with Thiobacillus, 200 kg.ha-1 sulphur + inoculation with Thiobacillus, 200 kg.ha-1 sulphur and control). plant height, leaf areal indexmax (LAImax), leaf dry weight, stem dry weight, total dry weight, flower, seed yield and yield components such as branch number, capsule number, number seed per capsule and 1000-seed weight and flower, seed and biological yield of marshmallow. To analyze the variance of the experimental data and drawing of diagrams, MSTAT-C 8 and Excel software was used. All the averages were compared according to Duncan’s multiple range test (p≤0.05) Results and Discussion The results showed that the effect of organic, chemical and biological fertilizers were significant (p≤0.01) on plant height, LAImax, leaf dry weight, stem dry weight, total dry weight, flower and seed yield, yield components and biological yield of marshmallow. At the end of the growing season, the highest and the lowest LAImax were observed in chemical fertilizer with Thiobacillus +sulphur (12.3) and control (1.3). The maximum flower and seed yields were recorded in chemical fertilizer with Thiobacillus +sulphur (175.33 and 99.91 g.m-2, respectively) and the minimum were obtained in control treatments (32.33 and 9.31 g.m-2, respectively). Flower yield enhanced up to 100% under chemical, cow manure and compost fertilizers without Thiobacillus +sulphur, Thiobacillus, sulphur compared to control treatment. Flower yield improved up to 106, 89 and 72% for chemical fertilizer, cow manure and compost application with Thiobacillus +sulphur, respectively. Conclusion According to the results obtained in the present study, organic, chemical and biological fertilizers had significant effects on growth, shoot yield, flower yield, seed yield, biological yield and yield components of marshmallow. Therefore, due to the high pH of soils in agroecosystems, integrated application of sulphur with Thiobacillus inoculation could be considered as an effective approach for soil fertility improvement. organic matter increase soil water holding capacity, improving plant hormone-like activity, increase nutrient uptake by plants, and generally improve the growth and yield of medicinal plant. Acknowledgement This research was funded by Vice Chancellor for Research of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, which is
A. Kianitalaei, Z. Feyzabadi, S. Hamedi, and M. Qaraaty, “Althaea Officinalis in Traditional Medicine and Modern Phytotherapy,” Issue S, vol. 9, 2019.
Althaea (Marshmallow) has been under consumption over the past few centuries to manage some of diseases including fever, eczema, constipation and cough. The aim of this study is to investigate the traditional and modern uses of marshmallow in children and adults. This study was a narrative review, in which the medicinal properties of marshmallow were collected from credible pharmacopeias and therapeutic books of Traditional Medicine (TM). Further, electronic databases including PubMed, Scopus, Magiran, and Web of Science were explored for this purpose. Marshmallow has been prescribed in various forms such as tablet, syrup, gargle, vaginal suppository, vaginal douche, rectal enema, as well as ophthalmic and nasal drop for different diseases by PM scholars. Some of its traditional effects including anti-inflammatory, antitussive, anti-infective, and anti-pyretic properties have been confirmed in new studies. Phytochemical investigations revealed that the whole part of marshmallow contains a mucilage, phenolic acid, scopoletin, and flavonoids. Considering the comparatively extensive uses of marshmallow in traditional medicine and the confirmation of some of these applications in modern medicine, we can examine the other benefits of this plant, especially in pediatric medicine with regards to digestion and fever. It is also possible to find better ways to treat diseases by integrating both traditional and classic medicine.
S. Lekić, S. Dražić, M. Lukić, and R. Jevdjović, “Testing Marshmallow Seed Germination on Different Substrates (Althaea Officinalis L.),” Lekovite sirovine, no. 29, pp. 45–50, 2009.http://aspace.agrif.bg.ac.rs/handle/123456789/1866.
In this paper the results of the research of marsh-mallow seed germination on three substrates: filter paper, sand and soil are presented. The part of seeds was germinated on the substrate soaked by potassium nitrate (treatment) and the other one was germinated on the non-treated substrate (control). The first count was determined after seven days and total germination was determined twenty days after seed was germinated. The obtained results show that filter paper is more suitable substrate for marsh-mallow research than sand or soil, which is confirmed by the results of the first count and total germination. Potassium nitrate stimulated marsh-mallow seed and increased germination in comparison with the control of all investigated substrates. The highest germination was in the seed treated by potassium nitrate on filter paper substrate. .
E. Lerceteau, T. Robert, V. Pétiard, and D. Crouzillat, “Evaluation of the Extent of Genetic Variability among Theobroma Cacao Accessions Using RAPD and RFLP Markers,” Theoretical and Applied Genetics, vol. 95, no. 1, pp. 10–19, Jul. 1997.
doi: 10.1007/s001220050527.
Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) markers were used to evaluate genetic relationships within the Theobroma cacao species and to assess the organization of its genetic diversity. Genetic variability was estimated with 18 primers and 43 RFLP probes on 155 cocoa trees belonging to different morphological groups and coming from various geographic origins. The majority of the RFLP probes issued from low-copy DNA sequences. On the basis of on the genetic distance matrices, the two molecular methods gave related estimates of the genetic relationship between genotypes. Although an influence of cocoa morphological groups and geographical origins of trees was observed, a lack of gene differentiation characterized the T. cacao accessions studied. The continuous RFLP variability observed within the species may reflect the hybridization and introgressions between trees of different origins. Nevertheless, the Nacional type was detected to be genetically specific and different from well-known types such as Forastero, Criollo and Trinitario. Some of those genotypes were characterized by a low heterozygosity rate and may constitute the original Nacional pool. These results also provide information for the constitution of a cocoa tree core collection.
E. Lerceteau, S. Flipo, J. Quiroz, J. Soria, V. Pétiard, and D. Crouzilat, “Genetic Differentiation among Ecuadorian Theobroma Cacao L. Accessions Using DNA and Morphological Analyses,” Euphytica, vol. 95, no. 1, pp. 77–87, May 1997.
doi: 10.1023/A:1002993415875.
The quality of Ecuadorian cacao is presently threatened by the introduction of hybrid material. An estimation of genetic diversity in Ecuador is required in order to avoid the loss of fine flavored cocoa. Genetic variability amongst 60 Ecuadorian genotypes of Theobroma cacao has been evaluated using molecular and phenotypic markers. The two distance matrices derived from the molecular and phenotypic data were found to be correlated (R2 = 0.5). Dynamic clustering analyses classified the genotypes in two or three groups depending on the markers used. The genotypes coming from Sebasti{àn Arteaga (SA) and Balao Chico (BCH) plantations appeared related to each other suggesting a common genetic origin. They also may be considered as a distinct group with high RFLP homozygosity. The EETP (Estací}on Experimental Tropical Pichilingue of Ecuador) collection was comprised of more variable genotypes possessing variable heterozygosity levels. The low heterozygous genotypes may be genetically related to SA and BCH trees, whereas the higher heterozygous genotypes may have resulted from hybridizations between original Nacional material of Ecuador and genotypes imported from Trinidad at the beginning of the century. Thus genetic introgression may have occurred giving rise to a range of variation between Nacional and hybrid forms.
A. A. Lindo, D. E. Robinson, P. F. Tennant, L. W. Meinhardt, and D. Zhang, “Molecular Characterization of Cacao (Theobroma Cacao) Germplasm from Jamaica Using Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) Markers,” Tropical Plant Biology, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 93–106, Dec. 2018.
doi: 10.1007/s12042-018-9203-5.
Cacao is an economically important commodity in Jamaica. Knowledge of the genetic diversity of Jamaican cacao germplasm is essential for their conservation and management. In spite of cacao’s economic importance in Jamaica, the crop is under studied, therefore limiting sound decisions toward improving productivity. Assessment of germplasm and on-farm genetic diversity is required to assist selecting superior genotypes to propagate and distribute across the island, as well as to use them as parental clones in breeding programs. Using 94 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers, 140 Jamaican cacao samples from two germplasm collections and a farmer’s estate along with 150 reference samples were analyzed. The principal coordinate analysis demonstrated that the majority of the Jamaican cacao selections were hybrids derived from five original germplasm groups, including Criollo, Amelonado and three Upper Amazon Forastero groups. Among the Upper Amazon groups, the Bayesian clustering analysis revealed that the Parinari (PA) ancestral lineage contributed the most (29.9%) to the Jamaican cacao germplasm. The germplasm collections showed greater diversity in terms of ancestral contributions compared to the farmer’s estate. However, the genetic differentiation between the three collecting sites was small (Fst\,= 0.036), indicating that samples collected from the three sites were derived from a common pool of germplasm. The current study supports the historical records and clarified the ancestry of Jamaican cacao. Although the majority of the cacao genetic groups were observed in the Jamaican cacao collections, several diversity gaps were found in both germplasm collections and in the farmer’s estate, especially germplasm with disease resistance to cacao frosty pod rot that was recently found in Jamaica.
R. G. Loor et al., “Tracing the Native Ancestors of the Modern Theobroma Cacao L. Population in Ecuador,” Tree Genetics & Genomes, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 421–433, Jul. 2009.
doi: 10.1007/s11295-008-0196-3.
The native Theobroma cacao L. population from Ecuador, known as Nacional, is famous for its fine cocoa flavour. From the beginning of the twentieth century, however, it has been subjected to genetic erosion due principally to successive introductions of foreign germplasm whose hybrid descendants gradually replaced the native plantations, implying a decrease in cocoa quality. We attempted to trace this native cacao within a wide pool of modern Ecuadorian cacao population. Three hundred and twenty-two cacao accessions collected from different geographical areas along the pacific coast of Ecuador and maintained in two living collections were analysed using 40 simple-sequence repeat markers. Most of Ecuadorian cacao accessions displayed a high diversity and heterozygosity level. A factorial analysis of correspondence (FAC) showed a continuous variation among them, with a few ones, grouped at an extreme side of the FAC cloud, showing higher levels of homozygosity and lower introgression level by foreign cacaos. A paternity analysis revealed that these highly homozygous individuals are the most probable ancestors of the modern Nacional hybrid pool. These particular accessions studied could represent the native Nacional cacao present in Ecuador before the foreign introductions. Their identification will help to conserve valuable genetic material and to improve cocoa quality in new cacao varieties.
N. Meyghan and P. Moradi, “The Effect of Nitrogen and Phosphorous Fertilizers on Morphophysiological Properties of Althaea Officinalis,” Iranian Journal of Plant Physiology, vol. 8, no. 4, pp. 2563–2571, Aug. 2018.
doi: 10.30495/ijpp.2018.543509.
Althaea officinalis hasasignificant role in preventing and treating different diseases. The present study was aimed to assess the effect of N and P fertilizers on leaf, seed, and flower properties in a semi-arid area of Iran. N was applied as NH2CONH at three stages (before cultivating stage, at 4-leaf stage, and before reproductive stage) as 50, 100, and 150 kg/ha. P was used as P2O5 before cultivating in three concentrations as 30, 60 and 90 kg/ha. Results showed that N fertilizer significantly increased plant height, leaf area, and leaf chlorophyll content, whereas P fertilizer only influenced the plant height. For seed properties, mucilage was not influenced by P fertilizer. Nor was 1000 seed weight affected by N fertilizer. P fertilizer significantly increased oil content. In contrast, a 0.5 % decrease in seed oil was observed in 150 kg/ha with respect to control. All flower properties (phenol, flavonoid, and antioxidant activity) of A. officinalis significantly increased by enhancing N and P concentrations. In most traits, 150 kg/ha N and 90 kg/ha P fertilizers were selected as most effective treatments.
R. Moalemi, M. Aghdasi, and F. Ghanati, “Induction of Phenolic Compounds Is Affected by Boron Supply in Marshmallow (Althaea Officinalis L. ) Cells,” Progress in Biological Sciences, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 68–75, 2012.https://journals.ut.ac.ir/article_24826_0.html.
Boron (B) is a non-metal micronutrient which is essential for plants growth and development. Formation of boron complex with cell wall matrix and phenolic compounds is a definite influence of boron in physiological process. It has been suggested that B-toxicity and deficiency may induce excess production of reactive oxygen species thereby promote defense responses by antioxidant enzymes or nonenzymatic compounds e. g. phenolics. Marshmallow (Althaea officinalis L. ) is a plant whose range of boron requirement has not been reported yet. On the other hand this plant contains valuable flavonoid glycosides, phenolic acids, tannins and flavonoids and has exhibited strong total antioxidant activity as well. The present study was therefore undertaken in order to investigate on the effects of different concentrations of boron on phenolic compounds of suspension-cultured marshmallow cells. The cells were grown in a modified MS medium without glycine and boron was supplied in the form of H3BO3 with the concentrations of 0.1, 0.01, and 1mM as control, deficiency and excess concentrations, respectively. Deficiency and excess boron supply increased the amount of pectin-bound cinnamic acid, ferulic acid, benzoic acid and tannic acid. Boron in 1mM concentration increased H2O2 content of the cells, but had no effect on H2O2 content in deficient concentration, compared to the control group. The flavonoid content of the cells treated with 1 and 0.01 mM B was also higher than of the cell under control condition, but both B- deficiency and excess B led to a similar decrease in anthocyanin content.
J. C. Motamayor et al., “Geographic and Genetic Population Differentiation of the Amazonian Chocolate Tree (Theobroma Cacao L),” PLoS ONE, vol. 3, no. 10, p. e3311, Oct. 2008.
doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0003311.
Numerous collecting expeditions of Theobroma cacao L. germplasm have been undertaken in Latin-America. However, most of this germplasm has not contributed to cacao improvement because its relationship to cultivated selections was poorly understood. Germplasm labeling errors have impeded breeding and confounded the interpretation of diversity analyses. To improve the understanding of the origin, classification, and population differentiation within the species, 1241 accessions covering a large geographic sampling were genotyped with 106 microsatellite markers. After discarding mislabeled samples, 10 genetic clusters, as opposed to the two genetic groups traditionally recognized within T. cacao, were found by applying Bayesian statistics. This leads us to propose a new classification of the cacao germplasm that will enhance its management. The results also provide new insights into the diversification of Amazon species in general, with the pattern of differentiation of the populations studied supporting the palaeoarches hypothesis of species diversification. The origin of the traditional cacao cultivars is also enlightened in this study.
J. A. Osorio-Guarín et al., “Colombia a Source of Cacao Genetic Diversity As Revealed by the Population Structure Analysis of Germplasm Bank of Theobroma Cacao L.,” Frontiers in Plant Science, vol. 8, 2017.
doi: 10.3389/fpls.2017.01994.
Beans of the species Theobroma cacao L., also known as cacao, are the raw material to produce chocolate. Colombian cacao has been classified as a fine flavor cacao that represents the 5% of cacao world’s production. Colombian genetic resources from this species are conserved in ex-situ and in-field germplasm banks, since T. cacao has recalcitrant seeds to dessication and long-term storage. Currently, the collection of T. cacao of the Colombian Corporation of Agricultural Research (CORPOICA) has approximately 700 germplasm accessions. We conducted a molecular analysis of Corpoica’s cacao collection and a morphological characterization of some accessions with the goal to study its genetic diversity and population structure and, to select interesting accessions for the cacao’s breeding program. Phenotypic evaluation was performed based on 18 morphological traits and 4 biochemical traits. PCA analysis of morphological traits explained 60.6% of the total variation in seven components and 100% of the total variation of biochemical traits in four components, grouping the collection in 4 and 5 clusters respectively. We explored 565 accessions from Corpoica´s germplasm and 252 accessions from reference populations using 96 Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) molecular markers. Molecular patterns of cacao Corpoica’s collection were obtained amplifying specific alleles in a Fluidigm platform that used Integrated Circuits of Fluids (IFC). Corpoica’s collection showed highest genetic diversity (Expected Heterozygosity (HE = 0.314), Observed Heterozygosity (HO = 0.353)) that is reduced when reference populations were included in the dataset (HE = 0.294, HO = 0.261). The collection was divided into four clusters based on population structure analysis. Cacao accessions from distinct groups showed some taxonomic concordance and reflected their geographic origins. For instance, accessions classified as Criollo were clearly differentiated in one group. Using a number of allelic variations based on 87 SNP markers and 22 different morphological/biochemical traits, a core collection with a total of 232 accessions was selected as a primary genetic resource for cacao breeders.
S. Pavlović, S. Stojanović, and M. Starović, “[The first finding of Colletotrichum malvarum on seed of marshmallow (Althaea officinalis L.)],” in Savetovanje o zaštiti bilja, 11, Zlatibor (Serbia), 28 Nov-2 Dec 2011, 2011.https://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=RS2012001022.
AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY INFORMATION
S. Pavlović, S. B, and S. D, “Mycopopulation of Marshmallow (Althaea Officinalis L),” Zbornik Matice Srpske za Prirodne Nauke, vol. 2007, Jan. 2007.
doi: 10.2298/ZMSPN0713193P.
Marshmallow is an important medicinal plant in Serbia. Because of increasing demands on the market, cultivation has been started. Through regular quality control of commercial seeds and plantations, mycopopulation of marshmallow was recorded in the period 2000-2006. Seeds of marshmallow were dominated by Alternaria alternata and species from the genus Fusarium (Fusarium verticillioides, F. proliferatum, F. semitectum, F. oxysporum and F. solani). Species belonging to Fusarium genus are the cause of rot of seeds and roots of marshmallow, causing chlorosis and fading, and therefore deterioration and necrosis of plants, as well as decrease of seed germination of seeds. Leaves and stalks of marshmallow were from time to time under massive attack of Puccinia malvacearum, and that was the reason why leaves were unuseful as a herbal drug. On roots and lower part of the stalks, massive appearance of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, a causal agent of the white rot, in cases when marshmallow was cultivated after sunflower, was recorded, too. From other fungi in roots, species belonging to the genus Fusarium (F. oxysporum, F. solani and F. verticillioides) were dominant.
V. Plugaru and R. Stoianov, “Mass of thousand seeds determined in various species of medicinal and aromatic plants during seed production process in Romania,” Analele Statiunii de Cercetari pentru Plante Medicinale si Aromatice, Fundulea (Romania), 1996.https://agris.fao.org/search/en/records/6472276977fd37171a7300d9.
By means of comparing the results obtained at SCPMA Fundulea with those existing in the literature consulted, the fact that 9 of the analysed species possess MMB values superior to those already known has been established. These species are: Althaea officinalis L., Angelica archangelica L., Atropa belladona L., Carthamus tinctorius L., Digitalis lanata Ehrh., Nigella sativa L., Plantago lanceolata L., Thymus vulgaris L., Valeriana officinalis L. Four plants have minor values: Cynara scolymus L., Glycyrrhiza glabra L., Malva glabra Desh., Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. For other three species MMB was determined for the first time in our country: Capsicum annuum L. var cayenne, Glaucium flavum Cr and Tagetes patula L.
E. E. Rezaie, M. Haghighikhah, S. Ghorbani, and M. Kafi, “Effect of Seed Priming on Seed Germination Properties of Two Medicinal Species in the Presence of Salinity,” Journal of Medicinal Plants Research, vol. 7, no. 18, pp. 1234–1238, May 2013.
doi: 10.5897/JMPR12.058.
Germination properties of two medicinal species including sage (Salvia officinalis L.), and marsh mallow (Althaea officinalis) evaluated under different antioxidant compounds and salinity levels by using a factorial based on completely randomized design with 4 replication at Special Crops Laboratory of Ferdowsi University of Mashhad. The studied factors for each plant consisted of seed priming at 4 levels including control (distilled water), ascorbic acid (40 mM), gibberlic acid (75 mg/L) and salisilic acid (1.5 mM), and five salinity levels according to electrical conductivity by adding NaCl to distilled water (control, 5, 10, 15 and 20 dS/m-1). Results showed that, pretreatment with gibberlic acid improved germination percentage and rate in two species under higher salt concentration. However, increased in salt concentrations sharply declined the germination of both species. Generally, seed priming with gibberlic acid could improve germination and seedling properties of these two species in the presence of high salinity.
C. M. Ronning and R. J. Schnell, “Allozyme Diversity in a Germplasm Collection of Theobroma Cacao L.,” Journal of Heredity, vol. 85, no. 4, pp. 291–295, Jul. 1994.
doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a111459.
P. Sadighara, S. Gharibi, A. Moghadam Jafari, G. Jahed Khaniki, and S. Salari, “The Antioxidant and Flavonoids Contents of Althaea Officinalis L. Flowers Based on Their Color,” Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 113–117, 2012.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4075668/.
Objective: There has been a growing interest in finding plants with biological active ingredients for medicinal application. , Materials and Methods: Three colors of petals of Althaea officinalis (A. officinalis) flowers, i.e., pink, reddish pink, and white were examined for total antioxidant activity and flavonoids content. , Results: The reddish pink flowers of A. officinalis have more antioxidant activity and the power of antioxidant activity was reddish pink > pink > white. , Conclusion: Findings suggest that the dark color can serve as an indicator of antioxidant content of the plant. Flavonoid content was highest in white flower thus this result indicated that flowers with light color can be considered for medicinal uses.
J. A. Saunders, S. Mischke, E. A. Leamy, and A. A. Hemeida, “Selection of International Molecular Standards for DNA Fingerprinting of Theobroma Cacao,” Theoretical and Applied Genetics, vol. 110, no. 1, pp. 41–47, Dec. 2004.
doi: 10.1007/s00122-004-1762-1.
A collaborative international program was initiated to identify and describe the genetic diversity of living germplasm collections of Theobroma cacao genotypes that are maintained in several international collections scattered throughout tropical cacao growing countries of the world. Simple sequence repeat (SSR) DNA analysis was identified as the most appropriate molecular tool for DNA fingerprinting these collections during an international forum representing academic, government and industry scientists in the cacao community. Twenty-five SSR primers, which had been previously described, were evaluated as potential candidates to define an efficient, standardized, molecular fingerprinting protocol for T. cacao accessions. These primers have been evaluated for reliability, widespread distribution across the cacao genome, number of alleles produced by the SSR primers in cacao and their ability to discriminate between cacao accessions. Approximately 690 cacao accessions were used to evaluate the utility of these SSR primers as international molecular standards, and a small number of test samples of T. cacao were sent to two other independent laboratories for verification. DNA fragments were selectively amplified by PCR, using the SSR primers labeled with fluorescent dyes, and separated by capillary electrophoresis. Based on this study, the 15 SSR primers that had the highest reproducibility and consistency within a common genotype, while allowing the differentiation of separate divergent genotypes, were selected as international molecular standards for DNA fingerprinting of T. cacao.
To find the optimal duration of treatment with hot water (85°C) to break seed dormancy of Althaea officinalis, this study was conducted in Physiology Laboratory of Faculty of Science in Islamic Azad University of Mashhad (2013-2014). Scarification with hot water (ranged from 1 to 7 minutes) was performed on the bases of completely randomized design with four replications in a factorial arrangement. First factor was the seed coat (removed or not) and the second factor was the duration of hot water treatment. Studied traits were germination percentage, speed of germination, root length, shoot length, seed vigor and mean daily germination. The results showed the main effect of coat in all traits was significant. Removing seed coat increased the germination traits. The effect of time of treatment with hot water was also significant in all traits. Seed treatment with hot water for four minutes, increased the percentage of seed germination compared to the control. Root and shoot length, seed vigor and mean daily germination of seed treated for four minutes caused a significant increase in these traits. Seed treatments with hot water in longer times caused a tangible decrease in of these traits led to damping off the Althaea officinalis seeds. In all of these traits, the reaction of the seeds without coat was better than the seeds with coat, at the same time. In conclusion seed treatments with hot water for four minutes showed significant effect to break dormancy of Althaea officinalis seeds and treating seed for longer times led to damping off of the seeds.
S. S. Shain, N. I. Geier, P. E. Birindzhyan, A. K. Bondarenko, and B. S. Bondarenko, “Pre-sowing treatment of Althaea officinalis and Ammi visnaga seeds with gibberellin.,” Pre-sowing treatment of Althaea officinalis and Ammi visnaga seeds with gibberellin., pp. 115–119, 1980.https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/19810302416.
In spring sowing trials with both species the highest and most uniform field emergence and the best seedling survival were obtained with seeds treated with GA at 700 mg/l for 24 h. The treatment also increased the yield by 10-15%.
F. Soghra Younesikelaki, M. Hadi Ebrahimzadeh, M. Kiani Desfardi, M. Banala, R. Marka, and R. Swamy Nanna, “Optimization of Seed Surface Sterilization Method and in Vitro Seed Germination in Althaea Officinalis (L.) - An Important Medicinal Herb,” Indian Journal of Science and Technology, vol. 9, no. 28, Jul. 2016.
doi: 10.17485/ijst/2016/v9i28/90896.
Objectives: The species Althaea officinalis is belong to Malvaceae family; its common name is Marshmallow. In this study an efficient technique has been optimized for sterilization of seed surface and also in vitro germination of seeds. Methods: Efect of diferent sterilizing agents with various concentrations and duration times as well as diferent media with various concentrations of sucrose on MGT (mean of germination time), GP (germination percentage), GR (germination rate), NDFG (number of days to first germination), CP (contamination percentage) and length of root and shoot of seedlings were recorded. For each experiment 25 seeds were treated and it was repeated at least three times. Findings: The maximum GP (80.0%) was recorded in sterilized-distilled water for 20 min (control), whereas minimum GP (44.0%) was recorded in experiment using 0.3% mercuric chloride (HgCl2) for 7 min. Between seed surface sterilization techniques used, maximum CP was achieved in control (85.33%) and minimum was found in 4% NaOCl (Sodium Hypochlorite), 10 min (13.33%), 0.3% HgCl2 for 7 min (14.66%) and 4% NaOCl for 5 min (17.33%). We compared the measured seed germination values (NDFG, MGT, GR, GP and CP) and among seed surface sterilization methods tested, NaOCl, 5 min has been found to be the best in A. officinalis. In addition, presence of sucrose in germination medium has shown negative efect on seed germination measured values as well seedling development. The efect of diferent surface sterilization techniques have no significant efect (p ≤ 0.05) on number of days to first germination (NDFG) but these techniques significantly afected (p ≤ 0.05) the other characteristics of seed sterilization. According to ANOVA results we report for the first time the best sterilization method and medium for in vitro seed germination and seedling development in A. officinalis.
M. StaroviC et al., “The Effect of IAA Producing Bacillus Sp. Q3 Strain on Marshmallow Seed Germination,” Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 572–577, 2013.http://www.agrojournal.org/19/03-29.pdf.
Marshmallow (Althea officinalis) is one of the important medicinal plants in Serbia. one of the bigest problem in growing of marshmallow is poor seeds germination. rhyzospheric bacteria able to produced plant growth stimulating hormones can inpruve seed germinations and decreace seed infections with patogens. iaa production by Bacillus sp. Q3 strain estimate in this investigation ranged from 3.76-10.62 μgml-1. the application of soil bacteria as the antagonists to the growth of pathogenic fungi, indicated that iaa producing Bacillus sp. strain Q3 demonstrated not only a high level of antagonism towards the seed mycoflora, but significantly increased the germination rate of the marshmallow seeds. Soaking marshmarrow seeds for 24 h in the 105 CFU ml-1 of investigated strain Bacillus sp. strain Q3 increased the 55.1% germination and decreased the percentage of the seed infection by the fungus Alternaria alternata, compared to the control (32%). Strong increasing percent germination of marshmallow’s seeds from 26.9-55.1% and decreasing seed infection with phytopathogen Alternaria alternate, as predominant marshmallow seeds pathogen, can recommend this strain for seed protection and as PGPr.
P. Szarvas, G. Kovács, M. M. Láng, M. László, and M. G. Fári, “Preliminary Results on the Isolation of Polyploid Lines from Malvaceae,” 2011.
Polyploidization experiments were initiated based on three traditional methods involving colchicine treatment on germinating seeds, nodal segments and freshly regenerated shoots (tips). In the first case, where the seeds were germinated on culture medium, covered with colchicine-soaked filter paper in Petri dishes, only morphologically aberrant plantlets were germinated, which could not be further analyzed. In the second case, where nodal shoot segments were directly treated with colchicine, all the segments died or were unable to regenerate shoots. In the third treatment shoots were regenerated from nodal segments. Liquid culture medium supplemented with 0.2% colchicine was added in such a way that the whole explant was completely immersed, followed by incubation in the dark for a period of 2 or 4 days. Shoot tips of treated shoots were cut, transferred onto fresh culture media and rooted. 30-40% of the treated shoots survived. New leaf samples were taken from each shoot for flow cytometry measurements to test for polyploidy. Several polyploid shoots were detected, which were planted directly into soil and transferred to the greenhouse for further examination.
Characterization in Theobroma cacao L. based on the suggested Australian Center for International Agricultural Research(ACIAR) guidelines is observed to be important to encourage fine quality Cocoa production, and to realize remunerative income. Hence, 40 Cocoa accessions collected from fields distributed under different wards of Makira Island of the Solomon Islands were characterize for nine quantitative and qualitative morphological traits. Among the identified Cocoa accessions,Principal Component Analysis (PCA) grouped all the traits into three major Principal Components (PC) accounted 46.2% of total variation. PC axis one accounted for 23.1% of total variation explained by pod weight, pod circumference, cotyledon length, pod length, cotyledon width, pod external thickness, mature pod ridge color (anthocyanin), pod surface texture, pod surface shape and pod shape. The 12.2% of total variation in PC axis two was considerably attributed by the qualitative traits cotyledon color, pod surface texture , mature pod ridge color (anthocyanin), pod surface shape, cotyledon width, pod shape and tree vigor. While, PC axis three accounted for 10.9% of total variation referred to traits pod neck, pod surface shape, pod surface texture, pod length, tree vigor, pod internal thickness, weight of the bean per pod, pod external thickness, number of beans per pod, pod weight and reaction to black pod. Unweighted Pair Group Mean with Arithmetic Average (UPGMA)classified the 40 accessions in to three clusters. Under Cluster 1, 95.5% of identified accessions were grouped by traits such as cotyledon length and cotyledon width, red pods tree. While, Cluster 2 made up of 5% of total number of accessions with traits least pod weight, least pod external thickness, least cotyledon length and red podded trees. A single accession in Cluster 3 characterized by longest pod and constituted only 2.5% of the total accession. The frequency distribution of the nine qualitative traits confirmed that, 90% of identified accessions exhibited pod surface texture as smooth and slightly rough, 97% with pod surface shape as slightly furrowed with medium furrows and 85% with Amelonado pod shape. Most of the identified Cocoa accessions, grouped into three pod apex shapes traits such as Mammelate, Acute and Obtuse,accounting for 44, 25 and 20%, respectively. Of the total accessions studied, 63% had no anthocyanin on the mature pod ridge. Each of 72% measured as the strength of the accessions to withstand Phytophthora palmivora, and vigorous. The Shannon Weaver Diversity Index characterized and suggested that the Cocoa accessions in Makira Island mainly resemble to Amelonado (bulk) type, usually classified as Forasterio variety.
C. Ulbricht, E. Basch, C. Ulbricht, P. Hammerness, and M. Vora, “Marshmallow (Althaea Officinalis L.) Monograph,” Journal of Herbal Pharmacotherapy, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 71–81, Jan. 2003.
doi: 10.1080/J157v03n03_08.
J. Vásquez-García, J. C. Santos-Pelaez, R. Malqui-Ramos, C. N. Vigo, W. Alvarado C., and L. G. Bobadilla, “Agromorphological Characterization of Cacao (Theobroma Cacao L.) Accessions from the Germplasm Bank of the National Institute of Agrarian Innovation, Peru,” Heliyon, vol. 8, no. 10, p. e10888, Oct. 2022.
doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10888.
Agromorphological characterization of cacao accessions in Peru is currently an important tool in the conservation and genetic improvement of cacao germplasm. The objective of this study was to carry out the morphological and agronomic characterization of 113 cacao accessions from the Huarangopampa germplasm bank. Tree, leaf, flower, fruit and seed descriptors were used. The data collected were processed by descriptive statistics using multivariate techniques. Five groups were formed according to similar characteristics. The accessions of group 1 are vigorous trees with an pod index of 19.27 pods/kg of seeds; the groups that presented better differential characteristics were group 2 with erect tree architecture, intermediate vigorousness, purple seed color and pod index of 20.07 pods/kg of seeds and group 3, which had the highest number of accessions with the lowest pod index of 18.77 pods/kg of seeds, besides being vigorous trees and having purple seeds. On the other hand, group 4 presented a particular characteristic of white seed color and high pod indexes with 22.11 pods/kg of seeds. Finally, group 5 accessions were characterized by intermediate tree architecture and vigor with an pod index of 21.3 pods/kg of seeds. The morphoagronomic characterization constitutes a first advance in the identification of cacaos with potential for genetic improvement and advances in the Peruvian chocolate industry.
T.-T. Xue et al., “Progress in Chemical Compositions and Pharmacological Activities of Althaea Officinalis,” Medicine Research, vol. 5, no. 2, p. 210002, Jun. 2021.
doi: 10.21127/yaoyimr20210002.
Althaea officinalis (Malvaceae), mainly distributed in Europe and Chin...
D. Zhang et al., “Molecular Characterization of an Earliest Cacao (Theobroma Cacao L.) Collection from Upper Amazon Using Microsatellite DNA Markers,” Tree Genetics & Genomes, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 595–607, Oct. 2009.
doi: 10.1007/s11295-009-0212-2.
Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) is indigenous to the Amazon region of South America. The river basins in the Upper Amazon harbor a large number of diverse cacao populations. Since the 1930s, several numbers of populations have been collected from the present-day Peruvian Amazon and maintained as ex situ germplasm repositories in various countries, with the largest held in the International Cacao Genebank in Trinidad. The lack of information on population structure and pedigree relationship and the incorrect labeling of accessions are major concerns for efficient conservation and use of cacao germplasm. In the present study, we assessed the individual identity, sibship, and population structure in cacao populations collected from the present-day Loreto Region, Peru in the 1930–1940s. Using a capillary electrophoresis genotyping system, we analyzed the simple sequence repeat variation of 612 cacao accessions collected from the Marañon, Nanay, and Ucayali river systems. A total of 180 cases of mislabeling were identified using a Bayesian clustering method for admixture detection. Using maximum likelihood-based methods, we reconstructed 78 full-sib families nested in 48 half-sib families, indicating that the pods collected in the 1930s were from 48 mother trees, maximum. Likelihood simulation also identified eight probable parents that are responsible for 117 pairs of mother–offspring relationships in this collection. Principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) and the Bayesian clustering method cohesively demonstrated a pronounced structure of genetic diversity, stratified by the river systems of the Peruvian Amazon. Our results also show that, in spite of the high level of allelic diversity in this collection, it was composed of a large number of related family members collected from a relatively small area, including a couple of sites in the Ucayali and Nanay rivers, as well as the lower Marañon river near Iquitos. The vast majority of the Peruvian Amazon, especially the upper Marañon River and its tributaries, have not been sampled by collecting expeditions. The improved understanding of the individual identities, genealogical relationships, and geographical origin of cacao germplasm in this collection will contribute to more efficient conservation and utilization of these germplasm. Additionally, this study also provides more baseline information to help guide future collecting expeditions in the Peruvian Amazon.