Rubiaceae

Mitragyna speciosa

Coffea arabica

Psychotria viridis

Bibliography

1. เวลาจร ณ and อวช ตา, “Genetic Analysis of the Mitragyna Genus and Identification of Kratom.”
2. L. A. de S. Abreu, A. D. Veiga, É. V. de R. Von Pinho, F. F. Monteiro, and S. D. V. F. da Rosa, “Behavior of Coffee Seeds to Desiccation Tolerance and Storage,” Journal of Seed Science, vol. 36, pp. 399–406, Dec. 2014. doi: 10.1590/2317-1545v36n41008. Abstract
   The technology developed by breeding programs is applied to coffee seeds; however, after processing and drying, they lose viability within a short period of time, thus making storage unsuitable. The objective of this research was to evaluate the quality of coffee seeds submitted to different drying methods and moisture contents during storage. The coffee seeds were submitted to conventional drying (slow shade drying) and fast drying in a static drier until they reached a moisture content of 40, 20, 12 and 5%. After this process, the seeds were stored in a cold chamber for 12 months, and seed quality was evaluated before and during storage by the germination test, electrophoretic patterns of heat resistant proteins, and the activity of isoenzyme systems. Conventional drying (slow shade drying) at 20% of moisture content maintains coffee seed quality until 12 months of storage.
3. G. F. de Abreu, S. D. V. F. da Rosa, M. R. Malta, A. da C. S. Clemente, A. L. Vilela, and R. W. Pereira, “Enzimas antioxidantes preservan la calidad del café en ambiente refrigerado,” Biotecnología Vegetal, vol. 18, no. 3, Jul. 2018. https://revista.ibp.co.cu/index.php/BV/article/view/586. Abstract
   Postharvest stages can cause biochemical and physiological alterations with direct effects on the quality of coffee beans (Coffea spp.) During storage. The objective of this work was to determine the relevance of the expression of isoenzymes of the antioxidant process, in the conservation of the quality of the grains subjected to different types of processing and storage conditions. The fruits of Coffea arabica L. were harvested in the cherry ripening stage and dried, after being processed dry and wet. After drying, part of the grains was threshed and another part was preserved in coconut or parchment. Then, the grains were stored in controlled conditions of refrigerated air (10 ° C and 50% relative humidity) or at 25 ° C without control of relative humidity,for a period of 12 months. The enzymatic expression of the enzymes catalase, esterase, peroxidase and alcohol dehydrogenase was evaluated in the coffee beans throughout the storage by means of an electrophoretic analysis. These results were compared with the sensory and physiological profile of the samples. It was found that the expression of the enzymes of the antioxidant process is associated with alterations in the quality of the coffee beans. Natural coffee obtained by drying, is more sensitive to biochemical alterations of the wet processing. The beneficial effect of storage air cooling in preserving coffee quality is evidenced by the higher expression of the enzymes studied after six months. The expression of the enzymes of the antioxidant process,it is associated with the protective effect of the pericarp and endocarp.
4. R. Acidri et al., “Exogenous Kinetin Promotes the Nonenzymatic Antioxidant System and Photosynthetic Activity of Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Plants Under Cold Stress Conditions,” Plants, vol. 9, no. 2, p. 281, Feb. 2020. doi: 10.3390/plants9020281. Abstract
   Coffee plants are seasonally exposed to low chilling temperatures in many coffee-producing regions. In this study, we investigated the ameliorative effects of kinetin—a cytokinin elicitor compound on the nonenzymatic antioxidants and the photosynthetic physiology of young coffee plants subjected to cold stress conditions. Although net CO2 assimilation rates were not significantly affected amongst the treatments, the subjection of coffee plants to cold stress conditions caused low gas exchanges and photosynthetic efficiency, which was accompanied by membrane disintegration and the breakdown of chlorophyll pigments. Kinetin treatment, on the other hand, maintained a higher intercellular-to-ambient CO2 concentration ratio with concomitant improvement in stomatal conductance and mesophyll efficiency. Moreover, the leaves of kinetin-treated plants maintained slightly higher photochemical quenching (qP) and open photosystem II centers (qL), which was accompanied by higher electron transfer rates (ETRs) compared to their non-treated counterparts under cold stress conditions. The exogenous foliar application of kinetin also stimulated the metabolism of caffeine, trigonelline, 5-caffeoylquinic acid, mangiferin, anthocyanins and total phenolic content. The contents of these nonenzymatic antioxidants were highest under cold stress conditions in kinetin-treated plants than during optimal conditions. Our results further indicated that the exogenous application of kinetin increased the total radical scavenging capacity of coffee plants. Therefore, the exogenous application of kinetin has the potential to reinforce antioxidant capacity, as well as modulate the decline in photosynthetic productivity resulting in improved tolerance under cold stress conditions.
5. R. Acidri et al., “Foliar Nitrogen Supply Enhances the Recovery of Photosynthetic Performance of Cold-Stressed Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Seedlings,” Photosynthetica, vol. 58, no. 4, pp. 951–960, Sep. 2020. doi: 10.32615/ps.2020.047. Abstract
   Cold-stressed leaves possess an elevated risk of photodamage due to an inefficient photosynthetic apparatus during winter conditions. Recovery of cold-stressed coffee seedlings treated with different concentrations of nitrogen applied as foliar urea sprays [control (0), 5, 10, 20, and 40 mM], was investigated under optimum growth chamber conditions (25/20°C) for three months. Concentrations of nitrogen and photosynthetic pigments in the leaves increased with increasing concentration of the foliar sprays up to 20 mM. This was accompanied with a recovery of the photosynthetic apparatus and increased net carbon assimilation rate. In addition, 10 and 20 mM-treated plants also had the highest maximal efficiency of PSII compared to their lower or higher nitrogen concentration treated counterparts. Conversely, these plants contained lower concentrations of 5-caffeoylquinic acid, mangiferin, trigonelline, and caffeine than control plants. We concluded therefore that foliar sprays of the appropriate nitrogen concentration were adequate for recuperating the photosynthetic apparatus and improved the photosynthetic performance of the cold-stressed coffee seedlings.
6. E. A. Adeyemi and R. R. Ipinmoroti, “Evaluation of Different Germination Media on Pre-Germination Performance of Selected Clones of Robusta Coffee (Coffea Canephora) in Nigeria.,” in 21st International Conference on Coffee Science, Montpellier, France, 11-15 September, 2006, 2007, pp. 1080–1083.
7. B. G. Adugna, “Factors Affecting Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Quality in Ethiopia: A Review,” American Journal of Agriculture and Forestry, vol. 9, no. 5, pp. 288–296, 2021. doi: 10.11648/j.ajaf.20210905.12. Abstract
   Coffee (Coffea arabica L.) is the most significant crop and is consumed all over the world. Twenty-five percent of Ethiopia’s population is dependent on the coffee business. Coffee quality can be affected by a variety of factors, including genetic and environmental factors, as well as the level of care given from the field to the bloodletting. On those factors, various studies have been conducted. As a result, this review aims to find out the elements that influence coffee quality in Ethiopia, as well as the analysis gap in coffee quality. Cup quality is also a fancy attribute that is influenced by several elements such as genetics, ecology, cultivation, processing method systems, and storage conditions. One of the most important stages in the preparation of any agricultural product, including coffee, is storage. The quality of coffee is affected by post-harvest operations and the plant’s structure. Every stakeholder, including farmers’ awareness, has played a part in Ethiopia’s intriguing coffee quality.
8. F. Afreen, S. M. A. Zobayed, and T. Kozai, “Development of Photoautotrophy in Coffea Somatic Embryos Enables Mass Production of Clonal Transplants,” in Liquid Culture Systems for in Vitro Plant Propagation, A. K. Hvoslef-Eide and W. Preil, Eds. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2005, pp. 323–335. doi: 10.1007/1-4020-3200-5_24. Abstract
   Somatic embryogenesis offers the promise of a cost-effective, large-scale propagation method and is considered as a unique alternative technique to overcome some of the limitations of conventional clonal propagation methods. Production of somatic embryos from cell, tissue and organ cultures may occur directly which involves the formation of an asexual embryo from a single cell or a group of cells on a part of the explant tissue without an intervening callus phase. In this study, the photosynthetic ability of different stage coffee (Coffea arabusta) somatic embryos and the development of photoautotrophy are reported. Results revealed that cotyledonary and converted somatic embryos have the ability to photosynthesise and can be grown under photoautotrophic conditions (with no supply of sugar from the culture medium). The development of photosynthetic ability can be accelerated by placing the somatic embryos in a photosynthetic photon flux of 100 µmol m−2s−1 for at least 14 days. Cotyledonary stage somatic embryos were cultured under photoautotrophic conditions in three different growing systems to develop an optimized protocol for a large-scale embryo-to-plantlet conversion and propagation system. Our results demonstrated that the use of a newly developed temporary root zone immersion bioreactor is effective for the embryo-to-plantlet conversion and enhanced growth under photoautotrophic conditions.
9. F. AFREEN, S. M. A. ZOBAYED, and T. KOZAI, “Photoautotrophic Culture of Coffea Arabusta Somatic Embryos: Development of a Bioreactor for Large‐scale Plantlet Conversion from Cotyledonary Embryos,” Annals of Botany, vol. 90, no. 1, pp. 21–29, Jul. 2002. doi: 10.1093/aob/mcf151. Abstract
   Somatic embryos were developed from in vitro‐grown leaf discs of Coffea arabusta in modified Murashige and Skoog medium under 30 µmol m–2 s–1 photosynthetic photon flux (PPF). Cotyledonary stage embryos were selected from the 14‐week‐old cultures and were placed under a high (100 µmol m–2 s–1) PPF for 14 d. These pretreated embryos were grown photoautotrophically in three different types of culture systems: Magenta vessel; RITA‐bioreactor (modified to improve air exchange); and a specially designed temporary root zone immersion bioreactor system (TRI‐bioreactor) with forced ventilation. The aims of the study were to achieve large‐scale embryo‐to‐plantlet conversion, and to optimize growth of plantlets under photoautotrophic conditions. The plantlet conversion percentage was highest (84 %) in the TRI‐bioreactor and lowest in the modified RITA‐bioreactor (20 %). Growth and survival of converted plantlets following 45 d of photoautotrophic culture in each of the three culture systems were studied. Fresh and dry masses of leaves and roots of plantlets developed in the TRI‐bioreactor were significantly greater than those of plantlets developed in the modified RITA‐bioreactor or Magenta vessel. The net photosynthetic rate, chlorophyll fluorescence and chlorophyll contents were also highest in plantlets grown in the TRI‐bioreactor. Normal stomata were observed in leaves of plantlets grown in the TRI‐bioreactor, whereas they could be abnormal in plantlets from the modified RITA‐bioreactor. Survival of the plants after transfer from culture followed a similar pattern and was highest in the group grown in the TRI‐bioreactor, followed by plants grown in the modified RITA‐bioreactor and Magenta vessel. In addition, ex vitro growth of plants transferred from the TRI‐bioreactor was faster than that of plants from the other culture systems.
10. I. Ahmad et al., “Mitragyna Species as Pharmacological Agents: From Abuse to Promising Pharmaceutical Products,” Life, vol. 12, no. 2, p. 193, Feb. 2022. doi: 10.3390/life12020193. Abstract
    Mitragyna is a genus belonging to the Rubiaceae family and is a plant endemic to Asia and Africa. Traditionally, the plants of this genus were used by local people to treat some diseases from generation to generation. Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil. is a controversial plant from this genus, known under the trading name “kratom”, and contains more than 40 different types of alkaloids. Mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine have agonist morphine-like effects on opioid receptors. Globally, Mitragyna plants have high economic value. However, regulations regarding the circulation and use of these commodities vary in several countries around the world. This review article aims to comprehensively examine Mitragyna plants (mainly M. speciosa) as potential pharmacological agents by looking at various aspects of the plants. A literature search was performed and information collected using electronic databases including Scopus, ScienceDirect, PubMed, directory open access journal (DOAJ), and Google Scholar in early 2020 to mid-2021. This narrative review highlights some aspects of this genus, including historical background and botanical origins, habitat, cultivation, its use in traditional medicine, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicity, abuse and addiction, legal issues, and the potential of Mitragyna species as pharmaceutical products.
11. W. Ahmed, T. Feyissa, and T. Disasa, “Somatic Embryogenesis of a Coffee ( Coffea Arabica L.) Hybrid Using Leaf Explants,” The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology, vol. 88, no. 4, pp. 469–475, Jan. 2013. doi: 10.1080/14620316.2013.11512993. Abstract
    Coffea arabica is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the World, and the major export commodity of Ethiopia. Improvement of this crop requires the development of hybrid varieties that possess desirable traits. The production and distribution of hybrid coffee is difficult due to the high costs required for manual crossing and maintenance. The use of somatic embryogenesis is an effective means of propagation. A protocol for somatic embryogenesis of hybrid C. arabica from leaf explants is described here. Leaf explants collected from healthy 1-yearold seedlings were used. The highest percentage of callus induction was observed from explants cultured on MS medium containing 1.0 mg l–1 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) in combination with 2.0 mg l–1 6benzylaminopurine (BAP). Embryogenic calli were obtained from leaf explants cultured on MS medium supplemented with 0.05 mg l–1 kinetin in combination with 0.1 mg l–1 indole-3-butyric acid (IBA). The highest number of embryos that germinated per explant (14.0 ± 1.7) was obtained on MS medium supplemented with 2.0 mg l–1 BAP in combination with 0.5 mg l–1 gibberellic acid (GA3). The maximum number of roots per plantlet (3.0 ± 1.0) was obtained on half-strength MS medium containing 0.5 mg l–1 indole-3-butyric acid (IBA). Acclimatisation of plantlets was achieved with a survival rate of 96.9%. This is an important achievement as acclimatising embryo-derived plantlets had been the most challenging feature of coffee tissue culture in Ethiopia. This protocol will enable us to multiply and supply large numbers of high quality hybrid coffee seedlings to farmers engaged in coffee production.
12. A. AL-Azab, S. Habib, M. Hussein, and F. El-Sherif, “Micropropagation of Four Coffee Cultivars (Coffea Arabica L.) from Yemen through Shoot Tip Culture,” Hortscience Journal of Suez Canal University, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 25–31, 2015. doi: 10.21608/hjsc.2015.6472. Abstract
    The aim of this study is to optimize in vitro multiplication of Coffea arabica cvs ’Benan’,’ Burai’,’ Odayni’ and ’Odayni- Bayat’. Seeds germinated on modified quarter MS medium with 1.0 g l−1 activated charcoal gave the highest germination percentage of the four cultivars under study. BA at 8.0 mgl-1 was the most effective concentration with an average of 14 shoots per explant, resulting in better and morphologically superior microshoots in ’Benan’ cv. However ’Burai’ ,’Odayni’ and ’Odayni- Bayat’ cultivars, showed the highest number of shoots when they were grown on MS medium supplemented with BA at 4.0, 2.0 and 6.0 mgl-1 respectively. Root formation was 100% in response to the application of IAA, IBA and /or NAA to the culture media for the four cultivars. Half MS supplemented with NAA at 2.0, 1.0 and 3.0 mgl-1 was found to be a suitable medium for root induction in excised micro-shoots, of ’Odayni’, ’Burai’ and ’Odayni-Bayat’ cultivars, respectively. The plantlets were successfully acclimatized in the greenhouse; consequently the survived plants reached 100%.
13. E. R. Alkimim, E. T. Caixeta, T. V. Sousa, F. L. da Silva, N. S. Sakiyama, and L. Zambolim, “High-Throughput Targeted Genotyping Using next-Generation Sequencing Applied in Coffea Canephora Breeding,” Euphytica, vol. 214, no. 3, p. 50, Feb. 2018. doi: 10.1007/s10681-018-2126-2. Abstract
    The use of molecular markers to detect polymorphism at DNA level is one of the most significant developments in molecular biology techniques. With the development of new next-generation sequencing technologies, the discovery of SNP became easier and faster, and the costs of data point were reduced. The development and use of SNP markers for coffee have provided new perspectives for the evaluation of genetic diversity and population structure via different statistical approaches. In this study, 72 Coffea canephora genotypes were analyzed to identify the SNP markers and apply them to genetic studies and selection of parents/hybrids in genetic breeding. As many as 117,450 SNP were identified using the RAPiD Genomics platform. After quality analyses, 33,485 SNP were validated for analyses of genetic diversity and population structure. Genotypes were separated based on their varietal groups, and Hybrids were differentiated using the clustering and Bayesian approach. Coffee accessions mistakenly identified in the germplasm and breeding program were detected. The Conilon varietal group presented the lowest genetic dissimilarity values, suggesting the introduction of new accessions in the germplasm bank. The highest genetic distances values were observed among genotypes of the heterotic groups (Conilon and Robusta). The markers were efficient in evaluating the genetic diversity and population structure of C. canephora. Promising crosses were selected within and between the varietal groups. Hybrids with greater genetic distances were selected, which were important for C. canephora breeding programs.
14. W. L. Almeida et al., “The Interplay between Irrigation and Fruiting on Branch Growth and Mortality, Gas Exchange and Water Relations of Coffee Trees,” Tree Physiology, vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 35–49, Jan. 2021. doi: 10.1093/treephys/tpaa116. Abstract
    The overall coordination between gas exchanges and plant hydraulics may be affected by soil water availability and source-to-sink relationships. Here we evaluated how branch growth and mortality, leaf gas exchange and metabolism are affected in coffee (Coffea arabica L.) trees by drought and fruiting. Field-grown plants were irrigated or not, and maintained with full or no fruit load. Under mild water deficit, irrigation per se did not significantly impact growth but markedly reduced branch mortality in fruiting trees, despite similar leaf assimilate pools and water status. Fruiting increased net photosynthetic rate in parallel with an enhanced stomatal conductance, particularly in irrigated plants. Mesophyll conductance and maximum RuBisCO carboxylation rate remained unchanged across treatments. The increased stomatal conductance in fruiting trees over nonfruiting ones was unrelated to internal CO2 concentration, foliar abscisic acid (ABA) levels or differential ABA sensitivity. However, stomatal conductance was associated with higher stomatal density, lower stomatal sensitivity to vapor pressure deficit, and higher leaf hydraulic conductance and capacitance. Increased leaf transpiration rate in fruiting trees was supported by coordinated alterations in plant hydraulics, which explained the maintenance of plant water status. Finally, by preventing branch mortality, irrigation can mitigate biennial production fluctuations and improve the sustainability of coffee plantations.
15. W. L. de Almeida, “Photosynthetic Acclimation of Coffee in Response to Water Availability and Fruiting: A Hydraulic and Hormonal Approach,” Sep. 2018. https://locus.ufv.br//handle/123456789/28282. Abstract
    The overall coordination between gas exchanges and plant hydraulics may be affected by the soil availability of water and source-to-sink relationships. Here we evaluated how coffee (Coffea arabica L. cv. Catimor) trees are able to acclimate their photosynthesis in response drought and fruiting. The plants, which were 6-yr- old at the beginning of trials, were grown in the field at full sunlight, and subjected to four treatment combinations: irrigated plants with fruits (I*F); irrigated plants with no fruits (I*NF); non-irrigated plants with fruits (NI*F) and non-irrigated plants with no fruits (NI*NF). A range of traits, encompassing from photosynthesis traits, water relations, growth and hormonal profile, were assessed. Over the course of the experiment, the non-irrigated plants displayed lower averaged values of predawn water potentials (-0.5 MPa) than their irrigated counterparts (-0.2 MPa). We showed that under mild water deficit conditions, irrigation per se did not impact growth rates but could reduce branch death significantly. These findings were unrelated to changes in leaf assimilate pools. We also demonstrated that fruiting provoked a feedforward effect on net photosynthesis rate that was fundamentally coupled to an enhanced stomatal conductance. Indeed both the mesophyll conductance and maximum rate of carboxylation by RuBisCO remained unchanged in response to the applied treatments. The increase in stomatal conductance was unrelated to varying abscisic acid levels or differential sensitivity to abscisic acid, although it was likely associated with a lower stomatal sensitivity to leaf-to-air vapor pressure difference. In parallel, the increases in transpiration rate were supported by coordinated alterations in plant hydraulics which should to a large extent explain the maintenance of plant water status regardless of fruiting-related variations in stomatal conductance and transpiration rate. In summary, we showed that stomatal conductance played a major role in the coordination between source capacity and sink demand regardless of irrigation, with concomitant changes in plant hydraulics. Therefore, these aspects should be considered in breeding programs to improve drought tolerance in coffee in face of the present and ongoing climate changes.
16. M. M. Alves, M. B. de Albuquerque, R. R. P. Cruz, and M. L. F. Cavalcanti, “Gas Exchanges and Photosynthetic Efficiency in Sub-Forest Species from Atlantic Forest,” Research, Society and Development, vol. 9, no. 5, pp. e43952870–e43952870, Mar. 2020. doi: 10.33448/rsd-v9i5.2870. Abstract
    The availability of light is one of the factors that most limits the photosynthesis of juvenile trees in the understory of the forest. The study was carried out in the Mata do Pau-Ferro State Park, located in the city of Areia, PB. The objective of this study was to evaluate how gas exchanges occur in individuals of Psychotria colorata (Willd. Ex Roem & Schult.), Senna georgica Irwin & Barneby, Himatanthus phagedaenicus (Mart.) Woodson, Solanum swartzianum Roem. & Schult, Psychotria carthagenensis Jacq.e Psychotria hoffmannseggiana (Willd. ex Schult.) in the understory of a remnant of Mata Atlântica. The rate of photosynthesis (A), transpiration (E), stomatal conductance (Gs), internal CO2 concentration (Ci) leaf temperature-air temperature (°C), and internal carbon (Ci), instantaneous efficiency of water use (EUA) (A/E), Intrinsic efficiency of water use (EiUC) (A/Gs) and the intrinsic efficiency of carboxylation (ratio A/Ci). The rates of maximum photosynthesis (A), photosynthesis (E) and stomatal conductance (Gs) were shown to be influenced by the time of day, as there was no interference of external factors in the diurnal patterns of gas exchange, variations are due to endogenous factors, probably due to the circadian rhythm. The parameter of the gas exchange of sub-forest species responds differently, in the small variations in the luminosity levels of the forest understory
17. G. E. Alves, F. M. Borém, E. P. Isquierdo, V. C. Siqueira, M. Â. Cirillo, and A. C. F. Pinto, “Physiological and Sensorial Quality of Arabica Coffee Subjected to Different Temperatures and Drying Airflows,” Acta Scientiarum. Agronomy, vol. 39, pp. 225–233, 2017-Apr-Jun. doi: 10.4025/actasciagron.v39i2.31065. Abstract
    ABSTRACT. The objective of this study was to evaluate the correlation between a group of physiological variables (electrical conductivity, potassium leaching, and germination percentage) and a group of drying kinetics variables (drying time and drying rate) in addition to verifying the relation between drying kinetics variables and coffee quality as a function of processing type, temperature, and drying airflow. Coffee drying was conducted in a fixed-layer dryer at two temperatures and two airflows. After drying, an evaluation of the physiological and sensorial quality was conducted. Based on the results obtained, the following conclusions were drawn: coffee that is processed via a dry method is more sensitive to mechanical drying with heated air than coffee processed via a wet method, resulting in poor physiological performance; airflow does not interfere with the physiological quality of pulped and natural coffees; a temperature increase from 40 to 45°C resulted in a decrease in the physiological quality only for pulped coffee; and an increase in the drying rate as a result of an increase in the drying temperature to 40°C had a negative effect on the sensorial quality of pulped coffee.
18. J. D. Alves, C. M. Paglis, D. E. do Livramento, S. S. D. Linhares, F. B. Becker, and A. C. Mesquita, “Source-Sink Manipulations in Coffea Arabica L. and Its Effect on Growth of Shoots and Root System,” Ciência e Agrotecnologia, vol. 35, pp. 956–964, Oct. 2011. doi: 10.1590/S1413-70542011000500013. Abstract
    This paper investigated changes in growth and carbohydrate content of shoots and root systems in response to source-sink manipulation in field-grown coffee trees. The source-sink manipulations were carried out using manual de-fruiting. Two plots of trees were established: in one group, the fruit was left on the tree, while in the second group all fruits were removed manually. Similar results were obtained for coffee trees with and without fruit in terms of height, stem and skirt diameter and branch lengths. A biochemical evaluation of the roots showed that no differences were found between the levels of carbohydrates. In the leaves, levels of soluble sugars and reducing sugars were higher in plants with fruit. The starch concentration in leaves and roots did not vary between the plots. Root length density did not vary between plants with and without fruit in the 0 - 0.4 m soil layer. However, plants without fruit had a higher root length density than plants with a full fruit load. These results contrast with results published by others on source-sink relationships of coffee plants. The joint data analysis shows that young trees, with a moderate fruit load, and with good nutritional and health status, produce carbohydrates in sufficient quantities to maintain vegetative and reproductive growth, without harming root system growth.
19. T. A. Amador, E. Elisabetsky, and D. Onofre de Souza, “Effects of Psychotria Colorata Alkaloids in Brain Opioid System,” Neurochemical Research, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 97–102, Jan. 1996. doi: 10.1007/BF02527677. Abstract
    An ethnopharmacological survey showed that home remedies prepared with flowers and fruits ofPsychotria colorata are used by Amazonian peasants as pain killers. Psychopharmacological in vivo evaluation of alkaloids obtained from leaves and flowers of this species showed a marked dose-dependent naloxone-reversible analgesic activity, therefore suggesting an opioid-like pharmacological profile. This paper reports an inhibitory effect ofP. colorata flower alkaloids on [3H]naloxone binding in rat striata as well as a decrease in adenylate cyclase basal activity. The alkaloids did not affect [3H] GMP-PNP binding. These findings provide a neurochemical basis for the opioid-like activity previously detected in vivo and point toPsychotria alkaloids as a potential source of new bioactive opiate derivatives.
20. J. A. T. Amaral, F. M. Da Matta, and A. B. Rena, “Effects of Fruiting on the Growth of Arabica Coffee Trees as Related to Carbohydrate and Nitrogen Status and to Nitrate Reductase Activity,” Revista Brasileira de Fisiologia Vegetal, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 66–74, 2001. doi: 10.1590/S0103-31312001000100008. Abstract
    Active vegetative and reproductive growth in field-grown trees of Coffea arabica L. in Viçosa (20o45’S, 650 m altitude), south-eastern Brazil, occur concurrently. The overall patterns of branch growth and leaf area gain were to a certain extent altered by fruit removal, with growth rates being remarkably greater in de-fruited trees. The content of N-NO3 was not affected by fruiting, whilst that of amino-N was greater in de-fruited than fruiting trees most of the time, but the differences were not large enough to have significantly contributed to the increased growth rates in de-fruited trees. Leaf nitrate reductase activity was greater in plants bearing fruit than in non-bearing ones most of the time; activity was roughly inversely associated with growth. Although the roots contained much more nitrate than the leaves, the root nitrate reductase activity was much lower and not affected by fruiting. Much of the restrictive effects of fruiting on vegetative growth appeared to be associated to starch exhaustion, in addition to the outstanding effect of supra-optimum temperatures per se.
21. P. Amezquita, “Light Environment Affects Seedling Performance in Psychotria Aubletiana (Rubiaceae), a Tropical Understory Shrub,” Biotropica, vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 126–129, 1998. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2389220.
22. L. Andersson, “Relationships and Generic Circumscriptions in the Psychotria Complex (Rubiaceae, Psychotrieae),” Systematics and Geography of Plants, vol. 72, no. 1/2, pp. 167–202, 2002. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3668767. Abstract
    Relationships among 111 species of the Psychotria complex (Rubiaceae tribe Psychotrieae) were estimated by cladistic analysis of nucleotide sequence variation in the rps16 intron (cpDNA). The Psychotria complex is characterised morphologically by caducous stipules and (usually) testa with a reddish, ethanol soluble pigment. It was found to be comprised of two major clades, one of which is Psychotria in a strict sense. Psychotria s. str. is characterised by usually having pyrenes without preformed germination slits, a plane or shallowly furrowed adaxial surface and usually numerous distinct ridges on the abaxial side. Most species occur in Africa and the Neotropics, but the genus extends eastwards to the Philippines and Australia. The second subclade comprises species from areas around the Indian Ocean and in the Pacific. Members of this subclade mostly differ morphologically from Psychotria s. str. by pyrenes with distinct marginal preformed germination slits. This subclade includes the tuberiferous, myrmecophile epiphytes, which, it is suggested, comprise a single genus, Hydnophytum. It also includes the genera Amaracarpus, Calycosia, Dolianthus, and Straussia. These genera are not supported as monophyletic by sequence data, but are tentatively recognized based on morphological evidence. Calycosia should be given a broader circumscription than presently and may be characterised by entire endosperm and pollen grains with usually thin exine and small lumina. The name Straussia has traditionally been applied only to Hawaiian species, but is applicable to a more widely distributed group. Its major distinguishing feature is a more or less ruminate endosperm.
23. A. O. Andrade et al., “Allelopathic Effects of Psychotria Viridis Ruiz & Pavon on the Germination and Initial Growth of Lactuca Sativa L.,” Journal of Agricultural Science, vol. 9, no. 1, p. 204, Dec. 2016. doi: 10.5539/jas.v9n1p204. Abstract
    The effects of aqueous and ethanol extracts and leaf fractions of Psychotria viridis Ruiz & Pavon (chacrona) at different concentrations on the germination and initial growth of Lactuca sativa L. were tested, and the phenolic and flavonoid compounds of these extracts and fractions were assessed. The bioassays consisted of the following treatments: crude aqueous extract (CAE) at 25, 50, 75 and 100% concentration, crude ethanol extract (CEE) and ethyl acetate, dichloromethane and methanol fractions at 6.25, 12.5, 25, 50 and 100% concentration and a control group. All treatments consisted of five replicates. The CAE, CEE and the ethyl acetate fraction of P. viridis caused both positive and negative effects on the seeds and seedlings of L. sativa. By contrast, the dichloromethane and methanol fractions only caused negative effects on L. sativa. The following compounds were identified in the extracts and fractions: gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, ellagic acid, catechin, orientin, vitexin, quercetin, apigenin, rutin and luteolin, and the presence of the alkaloid N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) has also been reported in the literature. P. viridis had allelopathic effects in all types of plant extracts and fractions tested, and one of these compounds or their combined action may account for these effects.
24. Andrade, “Florida Kratom Consumer Protection Act,” no. CS/HB 179. Jan-2023. https://www.flsenate.gov/Session/Bill/2023/179. Abstract
    Prohibits sale, delivery, bartering, furnishing, or giving of any kratom product to person under 21 years of age; provides criminal penalties; requires DACS to adopt rules.
25. L. M. da C. O. Andrade, “Otimização de técnicas de cultura de tecidos para o melhoramento do cafeeiro (Coffea arabica L.),” PhD thesis, Universidade Federal de Lavras, Lavras, Minas Gerais, Brasil, 1998. http://www.sbicafe.ufv.br/handle/123456789/58. Abstract
    The purpose of this work were to test tissue culture methodologies of: the anthers culture, the micropropagation and the embryos culture for the coffe cultures "in lives" that belong to the Universidade Federal de Lavras (UFLA). For that, it was necessary to determine the ideal floral bud size for the obtantion of haploids plants through the anthers culture. Also, to determine in micropropagation: the best concentrations of the growth regulators BAP (6-benzilaminopurina), GA3 (giberelic acid) and TDZ (N-phenil-N-1,2,3-thiadiazol-5-iluréia). Finally, in the embryos culture: to determine which were the best concentrations of the growth regulators ANA (naftalenacetic acid) and BAP(6-benzilaminopurine). For the morphologic and cytological evaluations, were used floral buds of 4 cultivates of Coffea arabica: cv.Mundo Novo, Catuaí, Icatú and Rubí. Morphologic and cytological analyses were accomplished, by observing that, for all the genotipes, the microspore non vacuolated (with central nucleus, ideal for the haploids obtained through the anthers culture), happens frequently in floral buds they vary in length from 4,5 to 6,0 mm, anthers varying from 4,5 to 5,5 mm length. For the micropropagation experiments, were used like explants microestacas of cultivating Catuaí, where several combinations were tested among the growth regulators BAP and GA3 (mg/l) and of TDZ and GA3, resulting in a factor 4x5, disposed entirely in a completely randomyzed. To verify the effect of the different combinations of the growth regulators, there were made periodic evaluations with there relationship of the total shoot number, larger sprouts than a centimeter, total leaf number, weight of the fresh and dry matter of the shoot. The best results for the combination of BAP and GA3 were obtained in the absence of GA3 and presence of BAP. For the combination TDZ and GA3, the best results were obtained when the maximum concentration of GA3 was associated to the minimum concentrations of TDZ. In the culture of embryos, were used embryos of the cv. Catuaí, in which combinations were tested among concentrations of the growth regulators ANA and BAP, resulting in a fator 4x4, disposed entirely in a completely randomyzed. For all the characteristics, the best results were observed in the concentration of BAP, the same to 7,40 mg/l, associated ANA’s concentration, the same to 1,0 mg/l. Models of answer surface were used in the micropropagation experiments and embryos culture, for optimize the concentrations of the used growth regulators. This work belongs to the program of improvement of the coffee culture of the Universidade Federal de Lavras (UFLA).
26. M. Anteneh, A. Atilaw, and T. Kufa, “Investigation of Coffee Seed Physical Purity, Seed Health and Effect of Storage Time on Viability,” Malaysian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 85–96, Dec. 2014. doi: 10.18034/mjmbr.v1i2.380. Abstract
    High seed quality is essential for optimum stand establishment in Coffee. As a result, it is necessary to have seed physical, germination percent, physiological and health tests that permit rapid, objective and accurate evaluation of seed quality. This study evaluated the effect of storage time on physical, physiological, germination percent and health quality of seed lots of five coffee varieties obtained from research and commercial company. This test is conducted under ideal laboratory conditions and in the nursery site. After sample collected pure, pea-beery, cracked and shriveled seeds were measured before determining standard germination and vigor. The highest pea berry was recorded at JARC on the variety 75227(18.63), and the lowest was at LCP on the variety 74165 (8.81). In parchment coffee seed, the percentage of physical defects during seed processing affects germination and seedling viability. The standard germination test in the moisten-soft paper continues to be the most common measure of seed quality in coffee. In addition, this test requires more than two weeks before a determination of seed germination was possible. Ideally, seed quality tests efficiently differentiate between poor and good seed lots in a short period. There was high germination percent in the first planting time were recorded after one month storage than other two consecutive storage time. Normal germinated seedling reduced with in increases seed storage time and the incidence of seed/ soil -born pathogenic fungi. The germination test of seeds from laboratory under petri-dish with moist soft paper and at the nursery site also had low vigour and did not produce suitable seedlings for planting evaluated after three month storage. If after one month storage time of coffee seeds germinated more than older seeds (as our study indicates), then seedlings derived from younger may have a competitive advantage over seedlings derived from older one. In the present study, pre-emergence seedling mortality (Rotten) was greater in third month storage than in first month old seeds. This mortality partially accounted for the lower germination percentage in three month old seeds because only seeds that emerged above the soil surface were considered to have germinated is an indication of reduced vigor. In my study, in coffee seeds, seedlings from relatively low stored seeds were generally better able to withstand environmental stress than those from old seeds. Coffee seed sample from two sources stored safely to optimize coffee seedling production at the appropriate time and season with ideal climatic conditions for planting in the field.
27. R. F. Araujo et al., “Influence of Seed Moisture Content, Packing and Storage Environment on the Conservation of Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Seed.,” Revista Brasileira de Armazenamento, vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 8–18, 2010.
28. W. L. Araujo et al., “Limitations to Photosynthesis in Coffee Leaves from Different Canopy Positions,” Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, vol. 46, no. 10, pp. 884–890, Oct. 2008. doi: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2008.05.005. Abstract
    Limitations to photosynthesis were explored in leaves from four canopy positions of field-grown, unshaded coffee (Coffea arabica L.), a tropical tree species classified as shade-obligatory. Overall, compared to shade (lower) leaves, sun (upper) leaves had higher net carbon assimilation rate (A) (4.5 against 2.0μmolm−2s−1 at most) associated with higher electron transport rate (due to a greater irradiance availability) but unrelated to stomatal and mesophyll conductances, which were similar regardless of leaf position. Neither physiological variable directly involved with photosynthetic carbon gain nor those involved with light capture were able to adjust themselves to match the capacity of the photosynthetic machinery to the light supply. We concluded that: (i) there was no major difference in photosynthetic capacity between sun and shade leaves; (ii) the intrinsic low A in coffee was greatly associated with remarkable low diffusive limitations rather than with biochemical or photochemical constraints; and (iii) morphological (e.g., variations in specific leaf area and leaf inclination) or anatomical plasticity should be of greater acclimative value than physiological plasticity as a mean of coffee leaves to respond to changing irradiance.
29. C. G. Araújo and V. J. M. Cardoso, “Storage in Cerrado Soil and Germination of Psychotria Vellosiana (Rubiaceae) Seeds,” Brazilian Journal of Biology, vol. 66, no. 2b, pp. 709–717, May 2006. doi: 10.1590/S1519-69842006000400015. Abstract
    The regeneration of plant communities from seed depends, to a large extent, on the capacity of the seed remaining viable in the soil. The viability and germination of artificially buried Psychotria vellosiana seeds in cerrado soil were studied, with the purpose of discovering some physio-ecological aspects of dispersed seeds and evaluating their potential to constitute a soil seed bank. Seed samples were placed in nylon envelopes and buried in the soil of a Cerrado reserve at two different depths and sites. Buried seeds were retrieved periodically and tested for germination along with dry-stored seeds. In general, there was a reduction in seed germination with storage time, both in soil and dry stored conditions, and in some assays exhumed seeds germinated faster than dry stored ones. In general the soil storage favoured seed viability of ungerminated seeds as compared to dry stored ones, with the seeds remaining partially viable after 10 months of storage. The lack of germination of viable seeds suggests that seeds showed true dormancy and/or required an extended time to germinate. It was observed that some seeds had germinated while buried and such in situ germination tended to increase with rainfall. The water availability in the soil might be a limiting factor for successful germination of P. vellosiana in the field, and the seeds may constitute a persistent soil seed bank in the cerrado as dispersed seeds remain viable in the soil until the following period of seed dispersal.
30. J. Arcila-Pulgarín, L. Buhr, H. Bleiholder, H. Hack, U. Meier, and H. Wicke, “Application of the Extended BBCH Scale for the Description of the Growth Stages of Coffee (Coffea Spp.),” Annals of Applied Biology, vol. 141, no. 1, pp. 19–27, 2002. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-7348.2002.tb00191.x. Abstract
    The extended BBCH (BBCH = Biologische Bundesantalt, Bundessortenamt and CHemische Industrie, Germany) scale and its associated decimal code were used to describe the growth stages of the coffee plant. Principal growth stages included germination and vegetative propagation, leaf development on the shoot of the young plant and branches of the tree, formation of branches, branch elongation, inflorescence and flower development, flowering, development of fruit, ripening of fruit and seed, and senescence. Secondary stages were also identified for each of the principal stages. Through a two digit decimal code, it is possible to identify the principal growth stages and their respective secondary stages. This scale will be of great help to coffee growers and researchers around the world for the more efficient planning of management practices and experiments.
31. F. Ardiyani, E. S. W. Utami, and H. Purnobasuki, “Optimation of Auxin and Cytokinin on Enhanced Quality and Weight of Coffea Liberica Somatic Embryos,” Pelita Perkebunan (a Coffee and Cocoa Research Journal), vol. 37, no. 1, 2021. doi: 10.22302/iccri.jur.pelitaperkebunan.v37i1.460. Abstract
    Coffea liberica is a variety of coffee that tolerant to marginal land, especially peatlands. One of propagation methods in C. liberica is somatic embryogenesis(SE) which producing large number of true-to-type plant seedlings in a short time. This research aimed at studying the effect of application of plant growthregulator (PGR) on quality and weight of somatic embryo of C. liberica. Somatic embryo in development stage was induced by Murashige and Skoog medium containing cytokinin as benzyl amino purin (BAP) and auxin as 2,4-dichlorophe-noxyacetic acid (2,4-D). While cotyledonary embryo in germination stage was induced by Murashige and Skoog medium containing cytokinin (BAP) and auxins as 2,4-D, indole acetic acid (IAA) and naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA). The resultsshowed that the application of auxins and cytokinins on development stage affected the formation of embryos, texture of calli, color of calli and embryos, and weight of somatic embryo. It also influenced the shoot and root formation, color and weight of geminating embryos of C. liberica at the germinating stage. During the development stage, addition of 1 mg/L BAP in the absence of 2,4-D in MS medium produced the highest quality of somatic embryo of C. liberica. This medium also produced heaviest somatic embryos but with lighter callus. While in germination stage, all medium treatments produced a typical germinating embryo. Coffea liberica germinating embryo growth optimally on MS medium containing 0.5 mg/L BAP as a single chemical or 0.5 mg/L BAP in combination with 0.5 mg/L IAA for shooting development. Whereas on rooting development, addition of 0.5 mg/L NAA on MS medium produced an optimal germinating embryo. Moreover, germination embryo of C. liberica recorded the highest in terms of dry weight on MS media with addition of 0.5 mg/L BAP. Application of appropriate concentration of auxin and cytokinin is needed to support the formation of somatic embryo and germinating embryo.
32. E. Arias-Pérez, C. A. Lecona-Guzmán, F. A. Gutiérrez-Miceli, J. A. Montes-Molina, and N. Ruiz-Lau, “Encapsulation of Immature Somatic Embryos of Coffea Arabica L. for in Vitro Preservation,” Phyton, vol. 90, no. 6, p. 1741, 2021. doi: 10.32604/phyton.2021.016004. Abstract
    The present study aimed to develop a protocol for somatic embryogenesis and encapsulation of coffee embryos (Coffea arabica L.), for the conservation of genotypes with characteristics of commercial interest. Somatic embryos were induced from leaf explants in Murashige and Skoog medium (MS) supplemented with 1 mg · L −1 of 2,4-dichlorophenoxiacetic acid (2,4-D) combined with 2 mg · L −1 of benzyladenine (BA). Somatic embryos (SE) at the globular stage were encapsulated in a sodium alginate matrix; two treatments were tested: MS + 5 mg · L −1 BA + 1 mg · L −1 NAA + 3% (w/v) alginate, and MS + 7 mg · L −1 BA + 5.7 mg · L −1 indoleacetic acid (IAA) + 3% (w/v) alginate. Alginate was complexed with 100 mM calcium chloride (CaCl 2 ). Viability of the encapsulated SE was determined by staining with 0.01% fluorescein diacetate (FDA) after 0, 15, 30, and 45 days of storage at 4°C. Embryo viability was 100% in both treatments.
33. R. Arimarsetiowati, “Embryo Germination Development of Coffea Arabica L. at Various Media Composition, Subcultures Stages and Embryo Size,” Pelita Perkebunan (a Coffee and Cocoa Research Journal), vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 156–167, 2017. doi: 10.22302/iccri.jur.pelitaperkebunan.v33i3.290. Abstract
    Most reliable and efficient protocol for Coffea arabica L. of Sigararutang variety plant regeneration was established using embryoid as an early explant from the induction of embryogenic callus phase. A completely randomized designs with 5 replications was designed to accomplish 20 protocols of embryo germina-tion methods with different steps of subculture, size of embryo and germination medium. The embryogenic calluses from the flush leave explant were induced embryoid on a half-strength MS medium fortified with a half-strength combina-tion vitamin of 1.8 mg/L nicotinic acid, 10.1 mg/L thiamin HCl and 3.1 mg/L pyri-doxine, 50 mg/L myo inositol, 33 mg/L L.cistein, 1 mg/L Kinetin, 0.1 mg/L NAA, 20 gr/L sucrose, 2.4 gr/L gelrite and pH 5.5.The result showed that Protocol 17 was the most effective, with 59,2% of rooted cotyledons, 4.04 cm of length of roots, 1.68 cm of length of hypocotyl, 20.8% of opened cotyledons and 100% of cotyledonary embryo at the end of 8 weeks which used the B medium, large embryos and twice phase of subculture from liquid medium to solid medium. The Protocol 17 is stable protocol from low to high value. Protocol 8 is the steady protocol from high to low value. Protocols 17 and 8 are the highest and lowest ranking, respectively, for each parameter. Protocol 17 is the most suitable for the germination embryo somatic
34. G. C. Arlette Ivonne and L. J. Díaz M., “Evaluación de tipos de contenedores sobre el crecimiento radical de café (Coffea arabica L. cv. Castillo) en etapa de vivero,” Revista Colombiana de Ciencias Hortícolas, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 125–136, Jun. 2016. doi: 10.17584/rcch.2016v10i1.4461. Abstract
    With the aim of finding alternatives that allow coffee producers to use reusable containers for more vigorous seedlings with a hard and well-formed root system, the root growth of coffee, cv. Castillo, seedlings was evaluated when sown in different types of containers with different dimensions, determining the variables of tap root length, root volume, root biomass and percentage of plants with deformation in the tap root, in the municipality of Tibacuy (Cundinamarca). Six treatments were distributed in a completely randomized block design with four repetitions, distributed as follows: 3x6 seed tray (18 wells) with a 17.3 cm depth; 3x6 seed tray (18 wells) with a 21.8 cm depth; 2x4 seed tray (8 wells) with a 17 cm depth; 2x4 seed tray (8 wells) with a 21.4 cm depth; 11x20 cm black polyethylene bag, and 17x23 cm black polyethylene bag. The results showed statistical differences for the evaluated variables because the restriction in the rooting space affected the root growth, with the plants sown in the containers with the greatest depth having the best characteristics, such as largest root length, root volume and root biomass. Those sown in the plastic seed tray with 18 wells and a depth of 21.8 cm had notable results, which recommends its use in the nursery phase due to the fact that it is reusable and that the environmental impact would be decreased.
35. Y. S. Athugala, K. M. G. Jayasuriya, A. M. T. A. Gunaratne, and C. C. Baskin, “Morphophysiological Epicotyl Dormancy in Seeds of Three Psychotria Species from Sri Lanka: First Record for Rubiaceae,” Seed Science Research, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 171–181, Jun. 2016. doi: 10.1017/S0960258516000027. Abstract
    To increase our knowledge of the diversity of seed dormancy and germination in Rubiaceae, we investigated seed desiccation sensitivity and germination of three Psychotria species. Seeds of P. gardneri, P. nigra and P. zeylanica germinated to high percentages at <15% seed moisture content. Intact seeds of P. zeylanica and P. nigra imbibed water and thus do not have physical dormancy. More than 50% of the seeds of P. zeylanica, P. nigra and P. gardneri took 33, 53 and 110 d, respectively, at 25°C for the radicle to emerge, and embryo growth occurred before and after radicle emergence. Thus, seeds have morphophysiological dormancy. Shoot emergence of P. nigra and P. zeylanica seeds was delayed 50 and 80 d after radical emergence, respectively; thus, seeds have epicotyl morphophysiological dormancy (eMPD). This is the first report of eMPD in Rubiaceae. Since warm stratification promoted both radicle and shoot emergence in seeds of P. zeylanica and P. nigra, the level of eMPD is non-deep simple. Hence, dormancy of the studied Psychotria spp. can be described as C1bBb (radicle)–C1bBb (epicotyl), i.e. the embryo is underdeveloped and grows prior to radicle emergence and epicotyl emergence under warm temperatures (Bb), and both the radicle and epicotyl have non-deep simple physiological dormancy broken by warm temperatures (C1b). In two Psychotria species studied in detail, radicle emergence occurs at the beginning of the rainy season and plumule emergence at the peak rainy season when conditions are most favourable for rapid seedling development.
36. R. T. Avila et al., “Coffee Plants Respond to Drought and Elevated [CO2] through Changes in Stomatal Function, Plant Hydraulic Conductance, and Aquaporin Expression,” Environmental and Experimental Botany, vol. 177, p. 104148, Sep. 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.envexpbot.2020.104148. Abstract
    Rising air CO2 concentration ([CO2]) is believed to mitigate the negative impacts of global climate changes such as increased air temperatures and drought events on plant growth and survival. Nonetheless, how elevated [CO2] affects the way coffee (Coffea arabica L.) plants sense and respond to drought remains a critical unknown. In this study, potted coffee plants were cultivated under two air [CO2] (ca. 400 ppm or 700 ppm) in open top chambers under greenhouse conditions. After a 5-month exposure to [CO2] treatments, plants were submitted to a progressive, controlled soil water deficit down to 20 % soil field capacity. Under well-watered (100 % field capacity) conditions, 700-plants displayed lower whole-plant transpiration rates (T) than their 400-counterparts. Changes in T were unrelated to stomatal conductances at the leaf scale (as well as stomatal morphology) or foliar ABA levels, but they were rather associated with faster stomata closure rates upon rapid increases in vapor pressure deficit in the 700-plants. During drought, 700-plants were able to maintain higher water potentials and plant hydraulic conductances for longer in parallel to higher T than their 400-counterparts. Under elevated [CO2], the faster stomatal closure rates (irrigated conditions) or the maintenance of plant hydraulic conductances (drought conditions) were associated with higher (3 to 40-fold) transcript abundance of most aquaporin genes. Altogether, our results suggest that elevated [CO2] has marked implications on how coffee plants respond to soil water deficit, ultimately permitting 700-plants to have improved fitness under drought when compared to 400-plants.
37. R. T. Avila et al., “Elevated Air [CO2] Improves Photosynthetic Performance and Alters Biomass Accumulation and Partitioning in Drought-Stressed Coffee Plants,” Environmental and Experimental Botany, vol. 177, p. 104137, Sep. 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.envexpbot.2020.104137. Abstract
    Coffee (Coffea arabica L.) is an important global commodity grown in tropical areas where increased drought severity and frequency are believed to become progressively important due to climate changes. Nonetheless, elevated air [CO2] is thought to be able to mitigate heat and drought stresses. In this study, we tested how carbon assimilation and use are affected by elevated [CO2] in combination with a progressive drought, and how this could impact shifts on biomass accumulation and partitioning. For that, we cultivated coffee plants in open top chambers under greenhouse conditions. Plants grown in 12-L pots were then submitted to ambient (386 ± 20 ppm) or elevated (723 ± 83 ppm) [CO2] during approximately seven months, as well as to varying soil water availabilities (100, 50, 37.5, 25 or 20 % of soil field capacity). Our results demonstrate that elevated [CO2] improved carbon assimilation rates (>60 %) with unaltered stomatal conductance and no signs of photosynthetic downregulation. This was accompanied by increases in water-use efficiency, respiration rates and biomass accumulation regardless of watering, and decreased photorespiration rates and oxidative pressure under drought. Improved growth under elevated [CO2] was more evident under drought than under full irrigation, and was unlikely to have been associated with global changes on hormonal pools, but rather with shifts on carbon fluxes. Finally, elevated [CO2] promoted key allometric adjustments linked to drought tolerance, e.g., more biomass partitioning towards roots with greater root length. Collectively, our results offer novel and timely information on the mitigating ability of elevated [CO2] on the photosynthetic performance and growth of coffee plants under drought conditions.
38. R. T. Avila et al., “Starch Accumulation Does Not Lead to Feedback Photosynthetic Downregulation in Girdled Coffee Branches under Varying Source-to-Sink Ratios,” Trees, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 1–16, Feb. 2020. doi: 10.1007/s00468-019-01893-8. Abstract
    Leaves were forced to accumulate starch as much as possible but maintained relatively low soluble sugar levels with no evidence of photosynthetic feedback downregulation.
39. R. Awada et al., “An Innovative Automated Active Compound Screening System Allows High-Throughput Optimization of Somatic Embryogenesis in Coffea Arabica,” Scientific Reports, vol. 10, no. 1, p. 810, Jan. 2020. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-57800-6. Abstract
    Somatic embryogenesis (SE) faces many challenges in fulfilling the growing demand for elite materials. A high-throughput approach is required to accelerate the optimization of SE protocols by multiplying experimental conditions within a limited time period. For the first time in plant micropropagation, we have developed a miniaturized and automated screening system to meet high-throughput standards. Coffea arabica embryo regeneration, classically achieved in 250-ml Erlenmeyer flasks, was successfully miniaturized in 24-well plates, allowing a volume downscaling factor of 100 and a space saving of 53 cm2/well. Cell clusters were ground and filtered to fit the automated pipetting platform, leading to fast, reproducible and uniform cluster distribution (23.0\,± 5.5 cell clusters/well) and successful regeneration (6.5\,± 2.2 embryos/well). Pilot screening of active compounds on SE was carried out. Compounds belonging to the histone deacetylase inhibitor family were tested for embryo regeneration efficiency. Cells treated with 1 µM Trichostatin A showed a marked 3-fold increase in the number of regenerated embryos. When re-tested in 250-ml flasks, the same enhancement was obtained, thereby validating the miniaturized and automated screening method. These results showed that our screening system is reliable and well suited to screening hundreds of compounds, offering unprecedented perspectives in plant micropropagation.
40. R. Awada et al., “Unravelling the Metabolic and Hormonal Machinery During Key Steps of Somatic Embryogenesis: A Case Study in Coffee,” International Journal of Molecular Sciences, vol. 20, no. 19, p. 4665, Jan. 2019. doi: 10.3390/ijms20194665. Abstract
    Somatic embryogenesis (SE) is one of the most promising processes for large-scale dissemination of elite varieties. However, for many plant species, optimizing SE protocols still relies on a trial-and-error approach. Using coffee as a model plant, we report here the first global analysis of metabolome and hormone dynamics aiming to unravel mechanisms regulating cell fate and totipotency. Sampling from leaf explant dedifferentiation until embryo development covered 15 key stages. An in-depth statistical analysis performed on 104 metabolites revealed that massive re-configuration of metabolic pathways induced SE. During initial dedifferentiation, a sharp decrease in phenolic compounds and caffeine levels was also observed while auxins, cytokinins and ethylene levels were at their highest. Totipotency reached its highest expression during the callus stages when a shut-off in hormonal and metabolic pathways related to sugar and energetic substance hydrolysis was evidenced. Abscisic acid, leucine, maltotriose, myo-inositol, proline, tricarboxylic acid cycle metabolites and zeatin appeared as key metabolic markers of the embryogenic capacity. Combining metabolomics with multiphoton microscopy led to the identification of chlorogenic acids as markers of embryo redifferentiation. The present analysis shows that metabolite fingerprints are signatures of cell fate and represent a starting point for optimizing SE protocols in a rational way.
41. R. Bachliński, A. Duszyńska, A. Kowalczuk, and A. Łozak, “Zastosowanie metody GC-MS do charakterystyki Calea zacatechichi i Psychotria viridis - roślin kontrolowanych ustawą o przeciwdziałaniu narkomanii,” Problemy Kryminalistyki, no. 279, pp. 15–21, 2013. http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.desklight-2f1734f0-0841-4534-94de-830bd18324d7.
42. V. Bajpai, A. Singh, B. Kumar, and K. P. Madhusudanan, “Application of DART-MS in Natural Phytochemical Research,” in Direct Analysis in Real Time Mass Spectrometry, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2018, pp. 255–290. doi: 10.1002/9783527803705.ch11. Abstract
    Phytochemicals are chemicals that are produced by plants. These phytochemicals find applications as flavors, fragrances, traditional medicines, pharmaceuticals, dyes, and pest control agents. Direct analysis in real time-mass spectrometry (DART-MS) parameters have to be optimized to realize effective phytochemical analysis. DART-MS was used for the nontargeted metabolite analysis of oolong tea during the manufacturing and fermentation process. Taxoids expressed in cell cultures of Taxus wallichiana were profiled by DART-MS by placing the calli directly between the DART source and the mass spectrometer in the presence of ammonium hydroxide. DART-MS is the simplest and fastest mass spectrometric technique for phytochemical analysis as it uses an extractionless technique, and sample to results is only minutes away. Gas chromatography, liquid chromatography, thin-layer chromatography (TLC), and capillary electrophoresis (CE) serve as sample inlets to DART-MS, thus harnessing the separation power of these techniques with the fast analysis capacity of DART-MS.
43. R. Barbon, H. N. Thi, A. Capote, M. de Feria, E. Quiala, and A. Pérez, “Effect of the Inoculation Density in Coffea Arabica L. Cv.’Caturra Rojo’somatic Embryos Germination in RITA® Temporary Immersion System.,” Biotecnología Vegetal, vol. 14, no. 2, 2014. https://revista.ibp.co.cu/index.php/BV/article/view/53. Abstract
    The development of somatic embryogenesis of coffee tree (Coffea spp.) In liquid culture media is a viable alternative for the propagation of this species. The use of liquid culture media and temporary immersion systems could increase the germination of somatic embryos and improve the quality of the plants. To this end, the objective was to determine the effect of inoculation density on the germination of somatic embryos of Coffea arabica L. cv. ’Red Caturra’ in Temporary Immersion Systems type RITA®. 40, 50, 60, 70 and 80 somatic embryos were used by RITA® as inoculum densities. At 90 days of culture, the number of germinated somatic embryos, hyperhydricity symptoms, number of true leaves, length and root development were quantified. With the inoculum density of 70 somatic embryos per RITA®, the highest germination percentage (60%) was achieved with good foliar development and the length of the plants obtained.
44. R. Barbón, E. Jiménez, and W. Preil, “Influence of in Vitro Environment on Somatic Embryogenesis of Coffea Arabica L. Cv. Caturra Rojo: The Effects of Carbon Dioxide on Embryogenic Cell Suspensions,” Plant cell, tissue and organ culture, vol. 95, no. 2, pp. 155–161, 2008. doi: 10.1007/s11240-008-9427-4. Abstract
    The influence of environment in the culture vessel is a factor that has very little study in the process of somatic embryogenesis. The present research was carried out with the objective to determine the effects of carbon dioxide on somatic embryogenesis of Coffea arabica cv. Caturra rojo. Embryogenic cell suspensions were cultured under different carbon dioxide concentrations (2.5%, 5.0%, and 10.0%) in the gases mixture and two control treatments, one with passive exchange and the other with forced ventilation. The results demonstrated that there were a larger number of somatic embryos formed with a concentration of 2.5% CO2. The differentiation of these somatic embryos of coffee in embryogenic cell suspensions (130 × 103 SE l−1) was also stimulated. The effects of CO2 on somatic embryogenesis were demonstrated when the control with passive exchange was compared with forced ventilation control, because in the former, where there was an accumulation of CO2, the production of somatic embryos was greater. CO2 could stimulate the formation and differentiation of somatic embryos directly, which led to a modification of the pH patterns of the culture medium or indirectly when producing changes in the pH that favored the somatic embryogenesis process.
45. L. Barrabé et al., “New Caledonian Lineages of Psychotria (Rubiaceae) Reveal Different Evolutionary Histories and the Largest Documented Plant Radiation for the Archipelago,” Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, vol. 71, pp. 15–35, Feb. 2014. doi: 10.1016/j.ympev.2013.10.020. Abstract
    New Caledonia is a remote archipelago of the South-West Pacific, whose flora is rich, distinctive, and disharmonic. The interest of botanists has long been attracted by the spatio-temporal origin of this flora, but little attention has been paid to the modes of colonization and the diversification processes that have led to the archipelago’s modern flora. To date, no explosive plant radiation has yet been highlighted for New Caledonia. A dated phylogenetic framework on the second richest New Caledonian genus – Psychotria s.l. and its allied genera (tribes Psychotrieae and Palicoureeae, Rubiaceae; ca. 85 species) – is provided in this study to explore its patterns of colonization and diversification in the archipelago. This study is based on a comprehensive species sampling, two nuclear and four plastid loci. Results show that New Caledonia was colonized four times by Psychotria and its allied genera during the Neogene long after its mid-Eocene re-emergence from the sea. The Pacific clade of Psychotrieae, one of the largest plant diversifications in the Pacific islands and the Indo-Pacific region, is absent from New Caledonia, possibly due to niche competition. Although the four lineages colonized New Caledonia relatively simultaneously during the Neogene, they express different evolutionary histories, as revealed by unevenness in species richness and net diversification rates. The genus Geophila has not diversified on New Caledonia, as a non-endemic single species has been documented in the archipelago. The genus Margaritopsis had a moderate level of diversification (four species) similar to that on other Pacific islands. The Psychotria clade NC1 appears to be a relictual lineage, which probably underwent a drastic extinction, with a narrow ecological habitat and dispersal limitations. The Psychotria clade NC2 is the largest and youngest New Caledonian plant radiation, and has undergone the fastest recorded diversification of any endemic lineage in the archipelago, and could be the result of a ‘non-adaptive radiation’, originating from Australian rainforests.
46. R. S. Barros, J. W. da S.e Mota, F. M. Da Matta, and M. Maestri, “Decline of Vegetative Growth in Coffea Arabica L. in Relation to Leaf Temperature, Water Potential and Stomatal Conductance,” Field Crops Research, vol. 54, no. 1, pp. 65–72, Aug. 1997. doi: 10.1016/S0378-4290(97)00045-2. Abstract
    The decline of vegetative growth of Arabica coffee trees in Viçosa (20° 45′ S, 650 m altitude), Brazil, occurring from mid-March through late May, was observed in both irrigated and non-irrigated plants and did not show a direct relation with leaf water potential. Declining growth coincided with lowering temperatures, and particularly with increasing daily periods with low temperatures. Stomatal conductances in the morning (0800–0900 h) were relatively high until mid-March and decreased gradually in parallel with declining growth rates. During the quiescent growth phase in the cool season, starting from late May, stomata were closed for most of the diurnal period.
47. D. BARRY-ETIENNE, B. Bertrand, N. Vasquez, and H. Etienne, “Comparison of Somatic Embryogenesis-Derived Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Plantlets Regenerated in Vitro or Ex Vitro: Morphological, Mineral and Water Characteristics,” Annals of botany, vol. 90, no. 1, pp. 77–85, 2002. doi: 10.1093/aob/mcf149. Abstract
    Coffea arabica L. plantlets obtained ex vitro after sowing somatic embryos produced in a bioreactor in horticultural substrate were compared with those obtained in vitro from the same embryo population under conventional culturing conditions on semi‐solid media. The intensity and quality of aerial and root system development were compared. Shoot emergence was more efficient in vitro but rooting frequencies were low. In contrast, all ex vitro‐regenerated embryos rooted. The cotyledon area of mature embryos produced in a bioreactor positively affected plantlet development when regeneration was carried out ex vitro. Embryos with an intermediate cotyledon area (0·86 cm2) had the highest rates of plant conversion ex vitro (63 %), and also resulted in vigorous plantlets. Mortality was higher in nursery conditions, but better plant development was obtained. The quality of plantlets produced under ex vitro conditions was reflected in better growth of the aerial and root systems, and also by similar morphological, mineral and water status characteristics to seedlings. Unlike roots formed on semi‐solid media, those produced in soil were branched, fine (30–50 % had a diameter of less than 0·5 mm) and they bore root hairs. Leaves of plantlets regenerated ex vitro had a histological structure similar to that of seedling leaves, and a lower stomatal density (100 vs. 233 mm–2). Moreover, they were more turgid, as indicated by higher pressure potential (ψP) (0·91 vs. 0·30 MPa) and relative water content values (97 vs. 93 %). Furthermore, under in vitro conditions, leaves had larger stomata which were abnormally round and raised. Direct sowing of germinated somatic embryos resulted in the rapid production of vigorous plantlets under ex vitro conditions, whilst removing the need for problematical and costly conventional acclimatization procedures.
48. K. D. Batista et al., “Photosynthetic Limitations in Coffee Plants Are Chiefly Governed by Diffusive Factors,” Trees, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 459–468, Apr. 2012. doi: 10.1007/s00468-011-0606-2. Abstract
    It has long been held that the regulation of photosynthesis in source leaves may be controlled by carbohydrates. The mechanisms that govern the diurnal fluctuation of photosynthesis and the potential role of feedback regulation by carbohydrates during photosynthesis in coffee (Coffea arabica) leaves were investigated in three independent and complementary experiments. An integrative approach using gas exchange measurements in addition to carbon isotope labelling and steady-state carbohydrate and amino acid analysis was performed. Canonical correlation analysis was also performed. In field-grown plants under naturally fluctuating environmental conditions (Experiment I), the overall pattern of gas exchange was characterised by both low stomatal conductance (gs) and net carbon assimilation rate (A) in the afternoon; no apparent signs of photoinhibition were observed. Under conditions of low air evaporative demand (Experiment II), only slight decreases (~20%) in A were observed at the end of the day, which were associated with a reduction (~35%) in gs. For both conditions, any increase in carbohydrate and amino acid pools over the course of the day was small. In leaves from girdled branches (Experiment III), a remarkable decrease in A and particularly in gs was observed, as were increases in starch but not in hexoses and sucrose pools. Furthermore, the rate of 14CO2 uptake (assessed under saturating CO2 conditions) and the partitioning of recently fixed 14C were not affected by girdling. It is proposed that the diurnal oscillations in A and the differences in A in leaves from girdled and non-girdled branches were merely a consequence of diffusive limitations rather than from photochemical constraints or direct metabolite-mediated down-regulation of photosynthesis.
49. P. Batista-Santos et al., “The Impact of Cold on Photosynthesis in Genotypes of Coffea Spp.—Photosystem Sensitivity, Photoprotective Mechanisms and Gene Expression,” Journal of Plant Physiology, vol. 168, no. 8, pp. 792–806, May 2011. doi: 10.1016/j.jplph.2010.11.013. Abstract
    Environmental constraints disturb plant metabolism and are often associated with photosynthetic impairments and yield reductions. Among them, low positive temperatures are of up most importance in tropical plant species, namely in Coffea spp. in which some acclimation ability has been reported. To further explain cold tolerance, the impacts on photosynthetic functioning and the expression of photosynthetic-related genes were analyzed. The experiments were carried out along a period of slow cold imposition (to allow acclimation), after chilling (4°C) exposure and in the following rewarming period, using 1.5-year-old coffee seedlings of 5 genotypes with different cold sensitivity: Coffea canephora cv. Apoatã, Coffea arabica cv. Catuaí, Coffea dewevrei and 2 hybrids, Icatu (C. arabica×C. canephora) and Piatã (C. dewevrei×C. arabica). All genotypes suffered a significant leaf area loss only after chilling exposure, with Icatu showing the lowest impact, a first indication of a higher cold tolerance, contrasting with Apoatã and C. dewevrei. During cold exposure, net photosynthesis and Chl a fluorescence parameters were strongly affected in all genotypes, but stomatal limitations were not detected. However, the extent of mesophyll limitation, reflecting regulatory mechanisms and/or damage, was genotype dependent. Overnight retention of zeaxanthin was common to Coffea genotypes, but the accumulation of photoprotective pigments was highest in Icatu. That down-regulated photochemical events but efficiently protected the photosynthetic structures, as shown, e.g., by the lowest impacts on Amax and PSI activity and the strongest reinforcement of PSII activity, the latter possibly reflecting the presence of a photoprotective cycle around PSII in Icatu (and Catuaí). Concomitant to these protection mechanisms, Icatu was the sole genotype to present simultaneous upregulation of caCP22, caPI and caCytf, related to, respectively, PSII, PSI and to the complex Cytb6/f, which could promote better repair ability, contributing to the maintenance of efficient thylakoid functioning. We conclude that Icatu showed the best acclimation ability among the studied genotypes, mostly due to a better upregulation of photoprotection and repair mechanisms. We confirmed the presence of important variability in Coffea spp. that could be exploited in breeding programs, which should be assisted by useful markers of cold tolerance, namely the upregulation of antioxidative molecules, the expression of selected genes and PSI sensitivity.
50. A. P. [unesp Batistini, J. R. [unesp Moro, S. C. França, and A. M. S. Pereira, “Avaliação de diferentes sistemas de cultivo in vitro para a micropropagação de Psychotria ipecacuanha (Brot.) Stokes,” Oct. 2002. http://hdl.handle.net/11449/66995. Abstract
    This work was carried out with Psychotria ipecacuanha, a Brazilian medicinal plant the roots of which contain emetine. The main objective was to develop a protocol for the micro-propagation of these species, by testing different culture techniques, the temporary immersion system, and the semi-solid and liquid media systems. In the semi-solid system, experiments were developed in flasks of two different sizes containing MS, B5, and WP media to which were added different growth regulators. Innoculum density was also evaluated. The liquid medium system consisted of MS medium supplemented with different growth regulators. For the temporary immersion system, the MS medium received an addition of 1.5mg/L BAP and 0.5mg/L GA3, and a reverse digital apparatus and vacuum pump were used. The liquid medium system with MS medium supplemented with 1.5mg/L BAP and 0.5mg/L GA3 presented the best results for shoot proliferation in a period of 30 days in culture (2.37 ± 0.32 shoots/explant). Cultures carried out for 90 days in the semi-solid system, using 8.5 × 5.5cm flasks and 3 explants per flask, developed 1.80 ± 0.20 shoots/explant, achieving 3.06 ± 0.51 cm of height adn presented superior survival ratio (96%). Explants cultured in temporary immersion system for 90 days showed 2.30 ± 1.10 shoots/explant achieving a growth of 2.08 ± 0.12 cm and 52% survival.
51. H. Bauer, R. Wierer, W. H. Hatheway, and W. Larcher, “Photosynthesis of Coffea Arabica after Chilling,” Physiologia Plantarum, vol. 64, no. 4, pp. 449–454, 1985. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3054.1985.tb08521.x. Abstract
    Net photosynthetic CO2 exchange of 1-year-old plants of Coffea arabica L. was studied after the above-ground parts had been exposed once or repeatedly to night temperatures in the chilling range. Chill-reduced rates of CO2 uptake (measured at 24°C and at natural CO, level) were observed after a 12 h night exposure to about 6°C. After exposure to 4°C, activity was reduced to less than half of that of the controls, and after exposure to 0.5°C the leaves suffered visible necrotic injury and were no longer able to take up Co2 If the leaves were not lethally injured, net photosynthesis recovered completely within 2 to 6 days. About 25% of chill-induced reduction of CO2 uptake was due to reduced stomatal aperture and 75% to impairment of carboxylation efficiency. Chilling on successive nights at 4–6°C reduced CO, uptake progressively on each day following treatment. After 10 nights, activity was decreased to less than 10% of initial performance. Conditioning at temperatures slightly above the chilling level (e.g. 15/I2°C) for 2 weeks led to almost complete impairment of photosynthetic activity without additional chilling stress instead of improving chilling tolerance.
52. T. W. Baumann and H. Gabriel, “Metabolism and Excretion of Caffeine during Germination of Coffea Arabica L.,” Plant and Cell Physiology, vol. 25, no. 8, pp. 1431–1436, Dec. 1984. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.pcp.a076854. Abstract
    To investigate the physiological role of the purine alkaloids during germination, seeds of Coffea arabica were allowed to germinate under aseptic conditions on agar at 26°C, either in the dark or in the light. After imbibition for 7 days less than 1% of the seed caffeine is found in the agar, indicating a strong diffusion barrier at the surface of the coffee bean. After 56 days, when the radicle has grown deep into the agar support, a considerable amount (22%) of caffeine is excreted. The total caffeine content increases during germination for 56 days by 83% in the dark and by 51% in the light, whereas the soluble protein falls drastically. We propose that caffeine is not a nitrogen reserve for germination and acts against competitors (release into the soil) and against predators (concentration increase in the tissue).
53. A. H. Beckett, E. J. Shellard, and A. N. Tackie, “The Mitragyna Species of Ghana. the Alkaloids of the Leaves of Mitragyna Stipulosa,” The Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, vol. 15, pp. SUPPL 158–165, Dec. 1963. doi: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1963.tb11205.x.
54. A. H. Beckett, E. J. Shellard, and A. N. Tackie, “The Mitragyna Species of Ghana. the Alkaloids of the Leaves of Mitragyna Ciliata Aubr. Et Pellegr,” The Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, vol. 15, pp. SUPPL 166–169, Dec. 1963. doi: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1963.tb11206.x.
55. A. H. Beckett, E. J. Shellard, and A. N. Tackie, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia IV. The Alkaloids of the Leaves of Mitragyna Speciosa Korth.. Isolation of Mitragynine and Speciofoline1,” Planta Medica, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 241–246, May 1965. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1100118. Abstract
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56. A. H. Beckett, E. J. Shellard, J. D. Phillipson, and C. M. Lee, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia VI. Oxindole Alkaloids from the Leaves of Mitragyna Speciosa Korth.1, 2,” Planta Medica, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 266–276, Aug. 1966. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1100054. Abstract
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57. A. H. Beckett, E. J. Shellard, J. D. Phillipson, and C. M. Lee, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia VII. Indole Alkaloids from the Leaves of Mitragyna Speciosa Korth.1, 2,” Planta Medica, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 277–288, Aug. 1966. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1100055. Abstract
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58. G. T. Beng, M. R. Hamdan, M. J. Siddiqui, M. N. Mordi, and S. M. Mansor, “A Simple and Cost Effective Isolation and Purification Protocol of Mitragynine from Mitragyna Speciosa Korth (Ketum) Leaves,” vol. 15, no. 1, 2011. Abstract
    The objective of the present study was to develop a simple and cost effective method for the isolation of mitragynine from Mitragyna speciosa Korth leaves. The results of our study showed that around 0.088 % (w/w) pure mitragynine was obtained by this newly developed method with a purity of 99.0 % (w/w) based on GC-MS analysis. Moreover, the recovery of the pure mitragynine from the chloroform extract was also more than 95.0 %. Advantages of this new method were simpler, faster and more economical. In conclusion this simple and cost effective method helps to isolate mitragynine with higher purity in comparison with the published methods.
59. A. Berger, A. Preinfalk, W. Robien, L. Brecker, K. Valant-Vetschera, and J. Schinnerl, “New Reports on Flavonoids, Benzoic- and Chlorogenic Acids as Rare Features in the Psychotria Alliance (Rubiaceae),” Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, vol. 66, pp. 145–153, Jun. 2016. doi: 10.1016/j.bse.2016.02.027. Abstract
    Five flavonoid glycosides, three chlorogenic and one benzoic acid were isolated from leaves of seven species belonging to the genera Notopleura, Palicourea and Psychotria. In most species, common flavonol glycosides based upon quercetin and kaempferol were recorded, which corresponds well to literature data on other species of the Psychotria alliance. From Notopleura polyphlebia, however, the new dihydroflavonol glycoside (2R,3R)-7,4′-O-dimethyl-aromadendrin 5-O-β-d-apiofuranosyl-(1→6)-β-d-glucopyranoside (1) was isolated, which is remarkable in terms of both the structure of the aglycone as well as the rarity of apiose as sugar moiety. In addition to flavonoids, benzoic and chlorogenic acids are a common and frequently neglected feature in the alliance, but all appear to be of limited chemosystematic significance when compared to tryptamine-iridoid alkaloids prominently known from this group.
60. A. Berger, K. Valant-Vetschera, J. Schinnerl, and L. Brecker, “A Revised Classification of the Sister Tribes Palicoureeae and Psychotrieae (Rubiaceae) Indicates Genus-Specific Alkaloid Accumulation,” Phytochemistry Reviews, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 941–986, Jun. 2022. doi: 10.1007/s11101-021-09769-x. Abstract
    Tribes Palicoureeae and Psychotrieae (Rubiaceae, Gentianales) are complex and speciose sister groups with a pantropical distribution. Since the initial studies on ipecacuanha more than two centuries ago, species of the group have been subject to numerous phytochemical studies yielding diverse specialized ("secondary") metabolites, most of them alkaloids. However, the generic limits within the tribes have long been unclear and only recently, monophyletic genera have been delimited and segregated from a once broadly circumscribed Psychotria. Thus, a phylogeny-based and taxonomically updated review of phytochemical literature was performed which allowed assigning the bulk of phytochemical data previously reported for Psychotria to various segregate genera such as Carapichea, Eumachia and Palicourea. This review not only challenges the common perception of Psychotria as a monoterpene-indole alkaloid-rich genus. It also highlights that each of its relatives differs by accumulating specific groups of alkaloids, which is of major importance for understanding animal-plant interactions such as herbivory, as well as for drug discovery. The alkaloid complement of each of these genera is here enumerated and discussed, which should provide a framework for future studies addressing the biosynthesis, evolution, ecological and pharmacological significance of specialized metabolite differentiation in this abundant, ecologically and ethnopharmacologically important group.
61. M. Berthouly et al., “Temporary immersion: a technique for mass propagation of heterozygous Coffea spp. genotypes through somatic embryogenesis,” in Dix-neuvième colloque scientifique international sur le café., 2001. https://agritrop.cirad.fr/485959/. Abstract
    Varietal improvement of Coffea arabica is moving, in many countries, towards the production and selection of vigorous, productive hybrids, giving a quality product and possessing genes for resistance to the main diseases and pests. To assess these heterozygous structures in full scale and propagate them on a large scale, CIRAD has developed a method of mass propagation by somatic embryogenesis based on the use of temporary immersion bioreactors and direct sowing of embryos ex vitro. This process has been used successfully in three different situations: i) breeding stock of the nematode tolerant ’Nemaya’ rootstock variety in Central America; ii) propagation of selected hybrids in Central America and Tanzania. 50,000 plants - seed fields and multi-local assessment trial network - have been established in five Central American countries. 200,000 plants resulting from this process are to be planted in Central America and Tanzania. These productions made it possible to optimize the different phases of the process and to assess on a large scale the genetic conformity of the regenerated material. (Author’s summary)
62. B. Bertrand et al., “The Greater Phenotypic Homeostasis of the Allopolyploid Coffea Arabica Improved the Transcriptional Homeostasis Over That of Both Diploid Parents,” Plant and Cell Physiology, vol. 56, no. 10, pp. 2035–2051, Oct. 2015. doi: 10.1093/pcp/pcv117. Abstract
    Polyploidy impacts the diversity of plant species, giving rise to novel phenotypes and leading to ecological diversification. In order to observe adaptive and evolutionary capacities of polyploids, we compared the growth, primary metabolism and transcriptomic expression level in the leaves of the newly formed allotetraploid Coffea arabica species compared with its two diploid parental species ( Coffea eugenioides and Coffea canephora ), exposed to four thermal regimes (TRs; 18–14, 23–19, 28–24 and 33–29°C). The growth rate of the allopolyploid C. arabica was similar to that of C. canephora under the hottest TR and that of C. eugenioides under the coldest TR. For metabolite contents measured at the hottest TR, the allopolyploid showed similar behavior to C. canephora , the parent which tolerates higher growth temperatures in the natural environment. However, at the coldest TR, the allopolyploid displayed higher sucrose, raffinose and ABA contents than those of its two parents and similar linolenic acid leaf composition and Chl content to those of C. eugenioides . At the gene expression level, few differences between the allopolyploid and its parents were observed for studied genes linked to photosynthesis, respiration and the circadian clock, whereas genes linked to redox activity showed a greater capacity of the allopolyploid for homeostasis. Finally, we found that the overall transcriptional response to TRs of the allopolyploid was more homeostatic compared with its parents. This better transcriptional homeostasis of the allopolyploid C. arabica afforded a greater phenotypic homeostasis when faced with environments that are unsuited to the diploid parental species.
63. A. Bertrand-Desbrunais, M. Noirot, and A. Charrier, “Minimal Growth in Vitro Conservation of Coffee (Coffea Spp.),” Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 333–339, 1991. doi: 10.1007/BF00157599. Abstract
    We have studied the influence of low concentrations of 6-benzyladenine on growth limitation, in order to preserve coffee germplasm through a microcutting collection. Concentrations of 0 μM, 1.3 μM and 4.4 μM were compared in four species: Coffea congensis, C. canephora, C. liberica and C. racemosa. After six months, microcutting behaviour varied between the different treatments, and a species effect was observed. The slow growing species (C. liberica and C. congensis) needed 1.3 μM; the others coffee species (C. canephora and C. racemosa) exhibited moderate caulogenesis on 6-benzyladenine-free medium. Zero and low concentrations did not affect survival rates. In conclusion 1.3 μM seems most appropriate for conserving all four species.
64. D. Bhosle et al., “Emerging Ultrasound Assisted Extraction (UAE) Techniques as Innovative Green Technologies for the Effective Extraction of the Active Phytopharmaceuticals,” Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology, vol. 8, no. 7, p. 963, 2015. doi: 10.5958/0974-360X.2015.00161.4.
65. M. H. Bilhimer, R. F. Schult, K. V. Higgs, T. J. Wiegand, R. M. Gorodetsky, and N. M. Acquisto, “Acute Intoxication Following Dimethyltryptamine Ingestion,” Case Reports in Emergency Medicine, vol. 2018, p. e3452691, Feb. 2018. doi: 10.1155/2018/3452691. Abstract
    Ayahuasca is a hallucinogenic tea that is most commonly comprised of the vine Banisteriopsis caapi alone or in combination with other plants such as Psychotria viridis. This concoction results in an orally active form of dimethyltryptamine (DMT), a hallucinogenic amine. Despite use in South America as a medicinal agent and component in religious ceremonies, interest in its recreational use and spiritual effects has led to increased use in the United States. We describe a unique case following ingestion of ayahuasca tea in a patient with history of schizophrenia resulting in personal injury and property damage. A review of ayahuasca toxicity and evaluation of serious adverse effects is also presented.
66. S. F. Billa, A. F. Ngome, T. P. Ngome, and T. E. Angwafo, “Influence of Biochar and Poultry Manure on Weed Infestation and Growth of Arabica Coffee (Coffea Arabica) Seedlings,” Current Research in Agricultural Sciences, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 9–19, 2019. doi: 10.18488/journal.68.2019.61.9.19. Abstract
    Young coffee plants at nursery particularly after transplanting are very sensitive to weed infestation. Therefore, timely weeding is necessary to boost seedling vegetative growth. A pot experiment was conducted from 2017-18 at IRAD, Foumbot multipurpose research station, Cameroon. The main objective was to assess the influence of biochar and poultry manure on weed infestation and growth of arabica coffee seedlings. The biochar was produced using an Elsa pyrolysis barrel at 450 0 C with 58 min carbonisation time from corncobs. The biochar were milled to < 2mm and mixed at the rate of 20, 30 and 40t/ha -1 with 40t/ha -1 poultry manure and soil before applying to 0.01 m 2 polythene bags with five replications. Results showed that the 20t/ha -1 biochar + 40t/ha -1 poultry manure treatment significantly (P < 0.05) increased plant height, stem girth, number of leaves, and leaf area compared to control (poultry manure only). Treatments with 30t/ha -1 and 40t/ha -1 biochar had the lowest weed fresh weight and dry weight. Cyperus rotundus, Oxalis cornoculata and Cynodon nlemfuensis were most economically important weeds scored for their abundance and persistence. Overall, weed control efficiency was lowest in sole 40t/ha -1 poultry manure and 20t/ha - 1 biochar treatment with 18% and 20% compared to 40t/ha -1 and 30t/ha -1 biochar treatment with 35% and 24% respectively. The results demonstrated that combined application of poultry manure and biochar appears essential for a sustainable coffee seedling production in the Western Highlands of Cameroon. However, to enhance coffee seedling growth using biochar, the use of recommended doses is paramount.
67. \relax I. B. Biradar, Y. Raghuramulu, and K. Naik, “Effect of Root Pruning and Size of Nursery Bag on the Growth and Vigour of Coffee Seedlings,” vol. 5, pp. 810–813, May 2014. Abstract
    A B S T R A C T Coffee being a perennial crop it is very important to plant healthy and vigorous seedlings in the field at the time of establishment of new plantations. In recent years due to erratic rainfall pattern, the establishment of coffee seedlings was found to be unsatisfactory as the six months old seedlings were unable to survive in the long dry spells that follow after field planting. Also, it was felt that the practice of nipping of tap root at the time of transplanting into poly bags may also be hindering the normal growth of tap root system and thereby make the seedlings vulnerable to long dry spells. In view of the above, a need was felt to revisit certain of the steps in raising of coffee seedling nursery for producing healthy and vigorous seedlings for field planting. In this direction, a nursery trial was conducted for a period of two years at Central Coffee Research Institute, Chikmagalur with the main objective of investigating the effect of nipping of tap root at the time of transplanting and size of poly bag on growth and dry matter production of coffee seedlings at nursery. Results revealed that in all three varieties most of the growth parameters and dry matter recorded did not differ significantly among the treatments at the early stage of seedling growth (90 DAT) in the nursery. However, at 180 days after transplanting when the seedlings are ready for field planting, all the three varieties recorded significantly higher growth in big size poly bags (5" × 12") when compared to normally recommended standard size poly bags (6" × 9") irrespective whether the tap root is nipped or not at the time of transplanting. Key words: Coffee, Seedlings, Root pruning, Nursery bag, Growth, Vigour
68. R. Blackledge, “Psychotria Viridis – A Botanical Source of Dimethyltryptamine (DMT),” Microgram Journal, vol. 1, Jan. 2003. Abstract
    Dimethyltryptamine was identified by GC/MS in a sample of dried leafy material that was subsequently identified as Psychotria viridis (Rubiaceae), a tropical shrub native to Central and South America that has ethnobotanical use as a hallucinogen by many indigenous peoples of tropical South America. The botanical characteristics of Psychotria viridis are illustrated and described.
69. R. Bobadilla Landey et al., “High Genetic and Epigenetic Stability in Coffea Arabica Plants Derived from Embryogenic Suspensions and Secondary Embryogenesis as Revealed by AFLP, MSAP and the Phenotypic Variation Rate,” PLOS one, vol. 8, no. 2, p. e56372, 2013. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0056372. Abstract
    Embryogenic suspensions that involve extensive cell division are risky in respect to genome and epigenome instability. Elevated frequencies of somaclonal variation in embryogenic suspension-derived plants were reported in many species, including coffee. This problem could be overcome by using culture conditions that allow moderate cell proliferation. In view of true-to-type large-scale propagation of C. arabica hybrids, suspension protocols based on low 2,4-D concentrations and short proliferation periods were developed. As mechanisms leading to somaclonal variation are often complex, the phenotypic, genetic and epigenetic changes were jointly assessed so as to accurately evaluate the conformity of suspension-derived plants. The effects of embryogenic suspensions and secondary embryogenesis, used as proliferation systems, on the genetic conformity of somatic embryogenesis-derived plants (emblings) were assessed in two hybrids. When applied over a 6 month period, both systems ensured very low somaclonal variation rates, as observed through massive phenotypic observations in field plots (0.74% from 200 000 plant). Molecular AFLP and MSAP analyses performed on 145 three year-old emblings showed that polymorphism between mother plants and emblings was extremely low, i.e. ranges of 0–0.003% and 0.07–0.18% respectively, with no significant difference between the proliferation systems for the two hybrids. No embling was found to cumulate more than three methylation polymorphisms. No relation was established between the variant phenotype (27 variants studied) and a particular MSAP pattern. Chromosome counting showed that 7 of the 11 variant emblings analyzed were characterized by the loss of 1–3 chromosomes. This work showed that both embryogenic suspensions and secondary embryogenesis are reliable for true-to-type propagation of elite material. Molecular analyses revealed that genetic and epigenetic alterations are particularly limited during coffee somatic embryogenesis. The main change in most of the rare phenotypic variants was aneuploidy, indicating that mitotic aberrations play a major role in somaclonal variation in coffee.
70. L. Boffa, C. Ghè, A. Barge, G. Muccioli, and G. Cravotto, “Alkaloid Profiles and Activity in Different Mitragyna Speciosa Strains,” Natural Product Communications, vol. 13, no. 9, p. 1934578X1801300904, Sep. 2018. doi: 10.1177/1934578X1801300904. Abstract
    Mitragyna speciosa (K.) H. (Kratom) is a tree that possesses stimulant and opioid-like analgesic effects, and is indigenous to Southeast Asia and Indochina, where it has seen widespread use for hundreds of years. The principal pharmacologically active alkaloids in kratom leaves include mitragynine (MG), 7-hydroxymitragynine (HMG), speciociliatine (SC), speciogynine (SG) and paynantheine (P). The pharmacological effects induced and their potency can vary dramatically according to variations in the proportions of alkaloid compounds present, which are related to geographic origin, stage of maturity and ecotype. Much of the analgesic and opiate-like psychoactive effect of kratom has been associated with the MG and HMG detected in M. speciosa (K.). H. Five different strains of M. speciosa (K.) H., which present differing vein colours and geographic origin, have been studied herein; red vein strains from Thailand, Malaysia and Bali, named Red Thai, Red Malay and Red Bali, a white vein strain from Borneo (White Borneo) and a green vein strain from Malaysia (Green Malay) were included in the study. Plant leaves were extracted under magnetic stirring at room temperature in a MeOH/H2O 1:1 mixture. Purified alkaloids were isolated in a number of organic extraction steps, from either aqueous basic or acidic phases, that culminated in precipitation (yields between 0.94 and 1.43%). These samples have been analysed using HPLC-DAD, HPLC-MS, HPLC-MS/MS and GC-MS to optimize the identification and quantification of the principal alkaloids present in the different strains. 24 alkaloids were detected in Red Bali whereas 11 compounds were found in the other varieties. Red Thai, Red Bali, Green Malay and White Borneo strains had a higher w/w percentage for MG than for P, while P was more abundant in Red Malay. The Green Malay variety (GMK) showed the highest w/w percentages for MG and total alkaloids in its extracts (59.7 and 94.9% respectively). The Green Malay variety was therefore chosen for in vivo pharmacological studies. The Green Malay extract has shown remarkable and significant antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity in mouse hot plate and carrageenan-induced paw edema tests.
71. A. L. Borhidi, R. Oviedo-Prieto, and M. Fernández-Zequeira, “Nuevos Resultados de La Revisión Taxonómica de Los Géneros Palicourea y Psychotria (Rubiaceae, Psychotrieae) En Cuba,” Acta Botanica Hungarica, vol. 58, no. 1-2, pp. 1–48, Mar. 2016. doi: 10.1556/034.58.2016.1-2.1. Abstract
    The authors carried out a taxonomic study and revised and identified about 7,000 herbarium sheets of the genera Palicourea and Psychotria preserved in the collections of the Academy of Sciences of Cuba (HAC) and of the National Botanical Garden of Cuba (HAJB) with the purpose to complete the manuscript in preparation for the volume of the Rubiaceae Family of the Flora of Cuba. The results are as follows: Recognized 20 species of the genus Palicourea and 59 species of Psychotria. Revalidated 4 species new to the Flora of Cuba: Palicourea brachystigma Urb., Psychotria brevinodis Urb., Psychotria earlei Urb. and Psychotria tubulocubensis Govaerts. Established 3 new combinations: Palicourea ekmanii (Urb.) Borhidi et Oviedo, Palicourea odorata (Wr. ex Griseb.) Borhidi et Oviedo and Psychotria costivenia subsp. clementis (Britt.) Borhidi et Oviedo. Recognized and described 9 species and 1 subspecies of the genus Psychotria new to science: P. bissei Borhidi et Oviedo, P. brittonii Oviedo et Borhidi, P. ermitensis Borhidi et Oviedo, P. cromophila Oviedo et Borhidi, P. oblongicarpa Borhidi et Oviedo, P. pulchrinervis Borhidi et Oviedo, P. reflexiloba Borhidi et Oviedo, Psychotria reflexipes Borhidi et Oviedo, Psychotria rubens Borhidi et Oviedo, Psychotria costivenia subsp. wrightiana Borhidi et Oviedo. Following the concept of C. W. Hamilton (1989) recognised 10 species groups, 5 of them identical with the described ones from Mexico and Central America: the carthagenensis group with 4 species, the costivenia group with 10 species, the graciliflora group with 9 species, the nervosa group with 3 and the tenuifolia group with 1 species. Furthermore, the authors established 5 new groups, characteristic for the Greater Antillean flora: cathetoneura group with 4 species, the evenia group with 7 species, the lasiophthalma group with 4 species, the revoluta group with 10 species and the shaferi group with 9 species.
72. A. D. Bote, Z. Zana, F. L. Ocho, and J. Vos, “Analysis of Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Performance in Relation to Radiation Level and Rate of Nitrogen Supply II. Uptake and Distribution of Nitrogen, Leaf Photosynthesis and First Bean Yields,” European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 92, pp. 107–114, Jan. 2018. doi: 10.1016/j.eja.2017.10.006. Abstract
    Natural supply of nitrogen is often limiting coffee production. From the viewpoints of growth and biomass production, adequate nitrogen supply is important. Growing coffee under full sunlight not only enhances potential yields but also increases demands for nitrogen fertilizer, the extent of which is ill quantified. This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of N uptake and distribution, biomass production, photosynthetic characteristics of 2.5 years old trees and first bean yields of 3.5 years old coffee trees in response to four radiation treatments (30%–100% of full sun), factorially combined with four rates of nitrogen supply (0–88g tree−1 y−1). The experiment was arranged in a randomized split-split plot design and was conducted at Jimma University horticultural farm, Ethiopia, using three coffee varieties. With larger N application and higher level of radiation, more N was utilized and more biomass and yield were produced. The fertilizer-N recovery ranged from 7 to 17% and declined with larger N supply and increased with radiation level. Coffee trees provided with larger amount of N had higher amounts of N per unit leaf area, light-saturated rate of leaf photosynthesis and first bean yield compared to trees grown in low N supply and limited radiation. The relation between biomass and plant N content was conservative across coffee varieties and can be used to estimate N content from biomass or calculate required uptake to produce a given amount of biomass. Though testing of the relation for other climatic conditions is advisable, this relation can also be used in the development of process-based quantitative coffee tree growth models,. Achieving synchronies between N supply and coffee trees demand without excess or deficiency requires further investigation of options to improve the low nitrogen recovery.
73. A. D. Bote and P. C. Struik, “Effects of shade on growth, production and quality of coffee (Coffea arabica) in Ethiopia,” Journal of Horticulture and Forestry, vol. 3, no. 11, pp. 336–341, Oct. 2011. doi: 10.5897/JHF.9000045. Abstract
    The research work was conducted to evaluate the effect of shade on growth and production of coffee plants. To achieve this, growth and productivity of coffee plants growing under shade trees were compared with those of coffee plants growing under direct sun light. Different physiological, environmental and quality parameters were assessed for both treatments. Shade trees protected coffee plants against adverse environmental stresses such as high soil temperatures and low relative humidity. Shade, however, also triggered differences in physiological behaviour of the coffee plants, such as improved photosynthesis and increased leaf area index, resulting in better performance than possible in direct sun light. Consequently, coffee plants grown under shade trees produced larger and heavier fruits with better bean quality than those grown in direct sun light. Moreover, shaded plants had greater biochemical and physiological potential for high dry matter production which would help them to maintain high coffee yields in the long term. If growing coffee under shade trees would allow other sources of income such as fruits, fuel wood and timber to be produced, it could be socially more acceptable, economically more viable and environmentally more sustainable. Since in Ethiopia people are moving towards replacing coffee by ‘chat’ and/or growing coffee in an open sun, we support the recommendations of growing coffee in the shade and suggest that the future research should be directed toward deterring the development of fungal diseases and increase of coffee yields under shaded conditions.
74. A. Bote, “Examining Growth, Yield and Bean Quality of Ethiopian Coffee Trees : Towards Optimizing Resources and Tree Management,” PhD thesis, Wageningen University, 2016. doi: 10.18174/383671. Abstract
    Coffee (Coffeaarabica L.)bean production and quality are determined by a diversity of interacting factors (e.g. shade, nitrogen, crop traits). Bean yield increases with increase in radiation, but adequate fertilizer suppliesare needed to sustain the productivity. This thesis analysed coffee tree growth, bean production and bean quality in relation to different degrees of exposure to radiation and nitrogen supply. Growth of leaves and branches and properties of leaves such as specific leaf area, nitrogen content per unit leaf area and light-saturated rate of photosynthesis were determined. Radiation interception and nitrogen uptake were also determined as were radiation use efficiency and apparent nitrogen recovery. Tree biomass and coffee bean yield responded positively to both radiation and nitrogen supply. Abundant bean yield to the detriment of vegetative growth, however, resultedin biennial bearing in coffee trees. Effects of fruit load on coffee treegrowth and productivity were studied for two consecutive years and the resultshowed that competition between fruit growth and vegetative growth predisposed the trees for biennial bearing. Reduced vegetative growth when fruit load is high reduces the number of flower bearing nodes and hence yields in the next season. Coffee quality is a sum of favourable characteristics that satisfies requirements of different actors in the coffee chain and is the factor determining the price on the coffee market. This study has also examined coffee quality attributes in relation to radiation and nitrogen, fruit load manipulation, and genotype by environment (different altitudes) interactions. The result indicated that factors and conditions that support non-limiting supply of resources for bean to grow and a sufficient long period of maturation promote coffee bean quality. Overall, the study gained further understanding of coffee tree growth, yield and bean quality responses to aforementioned factors and explored traits that underlie the patterns. Further works are required to use the traits and describe the behaviour of coffee trees in different agro-ecosystems.
75. J.-C. Breitler et al., “CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated Efficient Targeted Mutagenesis Has the Potential to Accelerate the Domestication of Coffea Canephora,” Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, vol. 134, no. 3, pp. 383–394, May 2018. doi: 10.1007/s11240-018-1429-2. Abstract
    Genome editing, which is an unprecedented technological breakthrough, has provided a valuable means of creating targeted mutations in plant genomes. In this study, we developed a genomic web tool to identify all gRNA target sequences in the coffee genome, along with potential off-targets. In all, 8,145,748 CRISPR guides were identified in the draft genome of Coffea canephora corresponding to 5,338,568 different sequences and, of these, 4,655,458 were single, and 514,591 were covering exons. The proof of concept was established by targeting the phytoene desaturase gene (CcPDS) using the Agrobacterium tumefaciens transformation technique and somatic embryogenesis as the plant regeneration method. An analysis of the RNA-guided genome-editing events showed that 22.8% of the regenerated plants were heterozygous mutants and 7.6% were homozygous mutants. Mutation efficiency at the target site was estimated to be 30.4%. We demonstrated that genome editing by the CRISPR/Cas9 method is an efficient and reliable way of knocking out genes of agronomic interest in the coffee tree, opening up the way for coffee molecular breeding. Our results also showed that the use of somatic embryogenesis, as the method for regenerating genome-edited plants, could restrict the choice of targeted genes to those that are not essential to the embryo development and germination steps.
76. J.-C. Breitler et al., “Full Moonlight-Induced Circadian Clock Entrainment in Coffea Arabica,” BMC Plant Biology, vol. 20, no. 1, p. 24, Jan. 2020. doi: 10.1186/s12870-020-2238-4. Abstract
    It is now well documented that moonlight affects the life cycle of invertebrates, birds, reptiles, and mammals. The lunisolar tide is also well-known to alter plant growth and development. However, although plants are known to be very photosensitive, few studies have been undertaken to explore the effect of moonlight on plant physiology.
77. S. V. B. Brinate et al., “Copper Can Influences Growth, Disease Control and Production in Arabica Coffee Trees,” Australian Journal of Crop Science, vol. 9, no. 7, pp. 678–683, 2015. doi: 10.3316/informit.357328620234232. Abstract
    The supply of copper to coffee trees is of great importance, but few studies have examined the benefits of copper to plant nutrition, vegetative growth, production and rust management. The objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of a supply of copper on the development, nutrition, and productivity of coffee trees and on the incidence and severity of rust in arabica coffee trees. The experiment was carried out in the Centro de Pesquisas Cafeeiras Eloy Carlos Heringer (CEPEC) located in the municipality of Martins Soares, MG, Brazil. Treatments were arranged in a randomised block design with a split plot in time, with eight replicates. The supply of copper was evaluated in the plots, and the control trees in each subplot were used to evaluate the influence of the year on the experimental results (year 1 and year 2). In this experimental setup, the following variables were studied: the number of nodes per plagiotropic branch, the number of leaves per plagiotropic branch, the copper content in green leaf tissues, the incidence of rust and the yield of coffee beans. To evaluate rust severity and the quality of the coffee fruit (mature, immature and dry; the average percentage of fruit that float; and the quantity of beans that are retained using size 17, 16, and 14 sieves and at the bottom), a randomised complete block design was used, with four replications and eight treatments. The results indicate that Arabica coffee trees supplied with Cu accumulated more Cu in leaf tissues (increase of 81%), experienced a lower intensity of rust (decrease of 23%), were more productive and produced fruit with a larger grain size. The bienniality of coffee plant production caused different levels of vegetative growth, intensities of rust and productivity between the years evaluated.
78. J. Brose et al., “The Mitragyna Speciosa (Kratom) Genome: A Resource for Data-Mining Potent Pharmaceuticals That Impact Human Health,” G3 (Bethesda, Md.), vol. 11, no. 4, p. jkab058, Apr. 2021. doi: 10.1093/g3journal/jkab058. Abstract
    Mitragyna speciosa (kratom) produces numerous compounds with pharmaceutical properties including the production of bioactive monoterpene indole and oxindole alkaloids. Using a linked-read approach, a 1,122,519,462 bp draft assembly of M. speciosa "Rifat" was generated with an N50 scaffold size of 1,020,971 bp and an N50 contig size of 70,448 bp that encodes 55,746 genes. Chromosome counting revealed that "Rifat" is a tetraploid with a base chromosome number of 11, which was further corroborated by orthology and syntenic analysis of the genome. Analysis of genes and clusters involved in specialized metabolism revealed genes putatively involved in alkaloid biosynthesis. Access to the genome of M. speciosa will facilitate an improved understanding of alkaloid biosynthesis and accelerate the production of bioactive alkaloids in heterologous hosts.
79. P. N. Brown, J. A. Lund, and S. J. Murch, “A Botanical, Phytochemical and Ethnomedicinal Review of the Genus Mitragyna Korth: Implications for Products Sold as Kratom,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 202, pp. 302–325, Apr. 2017. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2017.03.020. Abstract
    Ethnopharmacological relevance The genus Mitragyna (Rubiacaeae) has been traditionally used in parts of Africa, Asia and Oceania. In recent years, there has been increased interest in species of Mitragyna with the introduction of products to western markets and regulatory uncertainty. Aim of the study This paper reviewed the traditional ethnomedicinal uses of leaves for species belonging to the genus Mitragyna with reference to the botany and known chemistry in order to highlight areas of interest for products currently being sold as kratom. Materials and methods A literature search was conducted using Web of Science, Google Scholar, the Royal Museum for Central Africa, Internet Archive, Hathi Trust, and Biodiversity Heritage Library search engines in the spring of 2015, fall of 2016 and winter of 2017 to document uses of bark, leaf and root material. Results Leaves of M. speciosa (kratom) had the most common documented ethnomedicinal uses as an opium substitute or remedy for addiction. Other species of Mitragyna were reportedly used for treating pain, however the mode of preparation was most often cited as topical application. Other uses of Mitragyna included treatment of fever, skin infections, and as a mild anxiolytic. Conclusions Mitragyna species have been used medicinally in various parts of the world and that there is significant traditional evidence of use. Modern products that include formulations as topical application of liniments, balms or tinctures may provide effective alternatives for treatment of certain types of pains. Future research is required to establish safety and toxicology limits, medicinal chemistry parameters and the potential for different physiological responses among varying genetic populations to support regulatory requirements for Mitragyna spp.
80. A. Budiani and S. Mawardi, “Confirmation of Transgenic Robusta Coffee (Coffea Canephora) Transformed by Chitinase-Encoding Gene and Its Propagation Through Somatic Embryogenesis,” Pelita Perkebunan (a Coffee and Cocoa Research Journal), vol. 21, no. 2, 2005. doi: 10.22302/ICCRI.JUR.PELITAPERKEBUNAN.V21I2.16. Abstract
    Genetic engineering of Robusta coffee resistant to fungal diseases might be done by introducing a chitinase-encoding gene into genome of this plant. This research was aimed to confirm transgenic plant of BP 308 clone Robusta coffee transformed by chi gene and to evaluate its ability for the somatic embryogenesis. Confirmation of transgenic was carried out by analysis the presence of NPTII gene as a selectable marker for Canamysin resistant using PCR technique. The somatic embryo initiation and reproduction were evaluated in 11 plant accessions. Three kinds of sucrose concentration, 20%, 30% and 40% were applied in initiation stage of somatic embryo germination. The suitability of 4 medium, namely M1 (without addition by liquid medium), M2 (addition by liquid medium contained 0.25 mg/l kinetin), M3 (addition by liquid medium contained 0.25 mg/l IAA) and M4 (addition by liquid medium contained 0.25 mg/l GA3 ) was evaluated for somatic embryo maturation. The result showed that 8 out of 10 plant accessions tested were transgenic and they could be propagated through somatic embryogenesis. The ability of transgenic plant for somatic embryo initiation, reproduction and regeneration were similar with that of nontransgenic one. Germination of somatic embryo could be improved by using 40% sucrose. Maturation of somatic embryo could be improved by addition of fresh liquid medium on the ancient gelled medium that used for somatic embryos reproduction. The best result was obtained on addition of fresh medium contained 0.25 mg/l GA 3 in which 65% of the somatic embryos developed to pre-germinate somatic embryo. Key words: Coffea canephora, transgenic plant, somatic embryogenesis.
81. G. Bytof et al., “Transient Occurrence of Seed Germination Processes during Coffee Post-Harvest Treatment,” Annals of Botany, vol. 100, no. 1, pp. 61–66, Jul. 2007. doi: 10.1093/aob/mcm068. Abstract
    The chemical composition of green coffee and thus the final coffee quality are specifically determined by the mode of post-harvest treatment, i.e. the wet and dry processing. Recently, it was shown that metabolic processes, i.e. germination and, a slightly delayed stress-related metabolism are executed during the course of processing. The specific ambient conditions of either post-harvest treatment may influence differentially the extent and time course of these metabolic reactions; therefore, the incidence and intensity of germination processes in coffee seeds were analysed during processing.Expression of the germination-specific isocitrate lyase was monitored using competitive RT-PCRs analyses. Resumption of cell cycle activity and cell division were determined by flow cytometry, as well as by the abundance of β-tubulin quantified by Western blot analyses.The extent and the time courses of germination processes in coffee seeds differed significantly between wet and dry processed beans. The highest germination activity occurred 2 d after the onset of wet processing, whereas the corresponding maximum in the course of dry processing appeared about 1 week after the start of post harvest treatment.As recently shown, there are specific differences in the chemical composition of differentially processed coffee beans. It is concluded that these substantial differences are the consequence of the differential expression of germination processes, i.e. they are the result of differences in the corresponding metabolic activities. The coherence of germination-related metabolism and of expression-specific coffee qualities establishes the basis for a novel approach in coffee research.
82. I. F. Caixeta, R. M. Guimarães, and M. R. Malta, “Qualidade da semente de café pelo retardamento do processamento pós-colheita,” Coffee Science - ISSN 1984-3909, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 249–255, 2013. http://www.coffeescience.ufla.br/index.php/Coffeescience/article/view/425. Abstract
    The routine procedure of coffee seed production is based on the pulping of fruits immediately after the harvest of the cherry fruit to prevent fermentation and possible damage to the seed quality. However there are arguments of testers of natural special coffees (with husk during the drying up), that this procedure leads to full-bodied, sweet beverage, withmoderate acidity. The present study was conducted with the objective to verify possible changes in coffee beans due to husk permanence and from mucilage to peeling. The selective harvest of 500 litres of cherry coffee fruits was conducted at the EPAMIG Experimental Farm, in Machado - MG, in the cultivar Topazio MG 1190. The procedure followed the company rules for bean production. The fruits harvested were divided into 10 batches of 50 litres. The fruits of the lot 1 (treatment 1) werepulped and peeled immediately and then returned to the shade drying. The remaining batches (treatments) were processed after every 24 hours, continuing to dry shade. After the bean drying process , were evaluated the following variables: bean moisture content, total acidity, reducing sugars, non-reducing sugars, total sugars, total polyphenols, polyphenoloxidase activity, color index, electrical conductivity, potassium ions leaching, germination, emergence and sensory analysis. The results indicated that the permanence of the peel and fruit mucilage of coffee until the seventh day after the harvest does not affect the quality of bean.
83. N. O. Calixto et al., “The Genus Psychotria: Phytochemistry, Chemotaxonomy, Ethnopharmacology and Biological Properties,” 2016. doi: 10.5935/0103-5053.20160149. Abstract
    The present review will cover the relevant literature from 1962 until 2015, and outlines the current data on taxonomy, chemotaxonomy, traditional uses, pharmacological properties, chemical composition and ecological approach from Psychotria genus. Psychotria genus (Rubiaceae) is featured into the angiosperm, being the most speciose genus comprising approximately 1600 species. The available references demonstrate that Psychotria has several uses on traditional medicine including spiritual and cultural purposes, and presents great potential on pharmacological properties, especially the one related to neurodegenerative diseases. Despite its wide biological properties, this genus has shown complex phylogenetic analysis due to lack of chemotaxonomic information. In recent years, the interest in these plants has increased considerably and many active compounds have been isolated. Phytochemical investigations described in the literature confirmed the indole alkaloids as the major compounds and besides that, another particular chemical constituent are cyclic peptides, known as cyclotides. This present review will cover the relevant literature from 1962 until 2015, and outlines the current data on taxonomy, chemotaxonomy, traditional uses, pharmacological properties, chemical composition and ecological approach from Psychotria genus.
84. J. C. Callaway, G. S. Brito, and E. S. Neves, “Phytochemical Analyses of Banisteriopsis Caapi and Psychotria Viridis,” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 145–150, Jun. 2005. doi: 10.1080/02791072.2005.10399795. Abstract
    A total of 32 Banisteriopsis caapi samples and 36 samples of Psychotria viridis were carefully collected from different plants on the same day from 22 sites throughout Brazil for phytochemical analyses. A broad range in alkaloid distribution was observed in both sample sets. All B. caapi samples had detectable amounts of harmine, harmaline and tetrahydroharmine (THH), while some samples of P. viridis had little or no detectable levels of N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT). Leaves of P. viridis were also collected from one plant and analyzed for DMT throughout a 24-hour cycle.
85. J. C. Callaway, “Various Alkaloid Profiles in Decoctions of Banisteriopsis Caapi,” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 151–155, Jun. 2005. doi: 10.1080/02791072.2005.10399796. Abstract
    Twenty nine decoctions of Banisteriopsis caapi from four different sources and one specimen of B. caapi paste were analyzed for N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), tetrahydroharmine (THH), harmaline and harmine. Other plants were also used in the preparation of these products, typically Psychotria viridis, which provides DMT. There were considerable variations in alkaloid profiles, both within and between sample sources. DMT was not detected in all samples. Additional THH may be formed from both harmine and harmaline during the preparation of these products. The alkaloid composition of one decoction sample did not change significantly after standing at room temperature for 80 days, but the initial acidic pH was neutralized by natural fermentation after 50 days.
86. C. Campa, \relax U. M. R. IPME, F. and A. Petitvallet, and Wize, “Beneficial Compounds from Coffee Leaves Monkey, Canada,” in Achieving Sustainable Cultivation of Coffee, Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing, 2018, p. 22. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781351114363-16/beneficial-compounds-coffee-leaves-monkey-canada-claudine-campa-umr-ipme-france-arnaud-petitvallet-wize. Abstract
    Beneficial compounds from coffee leaves Claudine Campa, UMR IPME, France; and Arnaud Petitvallet, Wize Monkey, Canada1 Introduction2 Characterization of leaf metabolites in cultivated coffee plants3 Beneficial compounds for coffee plants4 Beneficial compounds for humans5 Case study: Wize Monkey6 Conclusion7 Future trends8 Where to look for further information9 ReferencesSelection in crop plants is mainly based on performance criteria and product quality. For coffee plants, this selection is essentially based on the production level of coffee beans and on the organoleptic quality of the coffee drink. Many suggestions have been proposed to improve these two criteria, either by modifying cultivation techniques, for example, by input supply, cultivation in full sun or under shade, and plant treatment against biological aggressors or by practicing inter-or intraspecific crosses. However, these improvements only address in part the problems of climate change and development of a sustainable farming.
87. C. Campa et al., “Juvenile Coffee Leaves Acclimated to Low Light Are Unable to Cope with a Moderate Light Increase,” Frontiers in Plant Science, vol. 8, p. 1126, 2017. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2017.01126. Abstract
    The understorey origin of coffee trees and the strong plasticity of Coffea arabica leaves in relation to contrasting light environments have been largely shown. The adaptability of coffee leaves to changes in light was tested under controlled conditions by increasing the illumination rate on C. arabica var. Naryelis seedlings acclimated to low light conditions and observing leaf responses at three different developmental stages (juvenile, growing and mature). Only mature leaves proved capable of adapting to new light conditions. In these leaves, different major mechanisms were found to contribute to maintaining a good photosynthetic level. With increased illumination, a high photosynthetic response was conserved thanks to fast nitrogen remobilization, as indicated by SPAD values and the photorespiration rate. Efficient photoprotection was accompanied by a great ability to export sucrose, which prevented excessive inhibition of the Calvin cycle by hexose accumulation. In contrast, in younger leaves, increased illumination caused photodamage, observable even after 9 days of treatment. One major finding was that young coffee leaves rely on the accumulation of chlorogenic acids, powerful antioxidant phenolic compounds, to deal with the accumulation of reactive oxygen species rather than on antioxidant enzymes. Due to a lack of efficient photoprotection, a poor ability to export sucrose and inadequate antioxidant protection, younger leaves seemed to be unable to cope with increased illumination. In these leaves, an absence of induced antioxidant enzyme activity was accompanied, in growing leaves, by an absence of antioxidant synthesis or, in juvenile leaves, inefficient synthesis of flavonoids because located in some epidermis cells. These observations showed that coffee leaves, at the beginning of their development, are not equipped to withstand quick switches to higher light levels. Our results confirm that coffee trees, even selected for full sunlight conditions, remain shade plants possessing leaves able to adapt to higher light levels only when mature.
88. G. Campbell, M. S. Mielke, G. R. Rabelo, and M. Da Cunha, “Key Anatomical Attributes for Occurrence of Psychotria Schlechtendaliana (Müll.Arg.) Müll.Arg. (Rubiaceae) in Different Successional Stages of a Tropical Moist Forest,” Flora, vol. 246–247, pp. 33–41, Sep. 2018. doi: 10.1016/j.flora.2018.07.004. Abstract
    We analyzed the effects of two different successional stages on leaf and wood anatomy of Psychotria schlechtendaliana in a tropical moist forest. Leaf and wood samples were collected from plants growing in two sites representing two successional stages: advanced and intermediate stages of forest succession (ASFS and ISFS, respectively). The leaves have typical mesomorphic anatomy. Wood exhibits growth rings slightly different. The vessels elements are solitary, arranged radial or in clusters, with diffuse porosity, simple perforation plates, septate fibers, radial parenchyma multiseriate, and heterogeneous and perforated ray cells, intervessel pits bordered, small, alternate, vestured and/or scalariform. Quantitative analyses showed significantly differences in leaf and wood anatomy. Top and base leaves on both sites differed in the thickness of cuticle, palisade parenchyma, and palisade:spongy parenchyma ratio. Plants at ISFS had leaf lamina with thinner adaxial cuticle, smaller cells on the adaxial epidermis, smaller width of palisade parenchyma, smaller palisade:spongy parenchyma ratio, and lower stomatal density than at ASFS. The wood of plants in ISFS had presented smaller diameters of the lumen of vessels and fibers, higher frequencies of vessels and rays, and fiber and rays with longer lengths than at ASFS. The differences between leaf and wood anatomy at the two sites confirm a structural adjustment in relation to forest succession for this species. The anatomical differences reflect the sunlight distribution and water availability, allowing the adjustment in photosynthetic efficiency, and safety water transport.
89. M. G. R. Cannell, “Changes in the Respiration and Growth Rates of Developing Fruits of Coffea Arabica L.,” Journal of Horticultural Science, vol. 46, no. 3, pp. 263–272, Jan. 1971. doi: 10.1080/00221589.1971.11514406. Abstract
    The rate of dark respiration, at 30 °C, of newly-detached developing coffee fruits, fruit pericarps and seeds is described in relation to their increase in size and dry weight (d.w.). The fruits took up 2 ml O2/g d.w./hr when they started to swell 6–8 weeks after flowering. Between 9 and 17 weeks the fruits expanded rapidly, seed endosperms were formed, and individual fruit d.w. increased to about 200 mg. Oxygen uptake per gram d.w. decreased to 0.5 ml 02/hr, while uptake per fruit increased to about 90μl O2/hr. From 17 weeks after flowering until ripening, at about 30 weeks, the fruits swelled relatively little but increased in d.w. to about 500 mg. Although the respiratory activity of the pericarp and seed tissues decreased greatly, oxygen uptake per fruit remained unchanged (about 90 μl O2/hr). During and after fruit ripening the pericarp increased in size and d.w. and respired more rapidly than before.Changes in the carbohydrate demands of developing coffee fruits are discussed.
90. X.-F. Cao, J.-S. Wang, P.-R. Wang, and L.-Y. Kong, “Triterpenes from the Stem Bark of Mitragyna Diversifolia and Their Cytotoxic Activity,” Chinese Journal of Natural Medicines, vol. 12, no. 8, pp. 628–631, Aug. 2014. doi: 10.1016/S1875-5364(14)60096-0. Abstract
    Aim To study the chemical constituents and bioactivity of the stem bark of Mitragyna diversifolia. Method Compounds were isolated by various chromatographic methods. Their structures were elucidated on the basis of spectroscopic techniques (IR, UV, MS, and NMR), and they were evaluated for their cytotoxic activities by the MTT method. Results Eight triterpenes were isolated and identified as 3α, 6β, 19α-trihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid (1), 3β, 6β, 19α-trihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid (2), 3-oxo-6β-19α-dihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid (3), 3β, 6β, 19α-trihydroxy-urs-12-en-24, 28-dioic acid 24-methyl ester (4), 3β, 6β, 19α, 24-tetrahydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid (5), rotundic acid (6), 23-nor-24-exomethylene- 3β, 6β, 19α-trihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid (7), and pololic acid (8), respectively. All of the isolates were tested against two human tumor cell lines, MCF-7 (breast) and HT-29 (colon). Conclusion Compound 1 was a new triterpene. Compounds 5 − 7 exhibited potent inhibitory effects on the growth of MCF-7 and HT-29 cells, and the others showed no cytotoxicity.
91. A. L. Carlier and L. Eberl, “The Eroded Genome of a Psychotria Leaf Symbiont: Hypotheses about Lifestyle and Interactions with Its Plant Host,” Environmental Microbiology, vol. 14, no. 10, pp. 2757–2769, 2012. doi: 10.1111/j.1462-2920.2012.02763.x. Abstract
    Several plant species of the genus Psychotria (Rubiaceae) harbour Burkholderia sp. bacteria within specialized leaf nodules. The bacteria are transmitted vertically between plant generations and have not yet been cultured outside of their host. This symbiosis is also generally described as obligatory because plants devoid of symbionts fail to develop into mature individuals. We sequenced for the first time the genome of the symbiont of Psychotria kirkii in order to shed some light on the nature of their symbiotic relationship. We found that the 4 Mb genome of Candidatus Burkholderia kirkii (B. kirkii) is small for a Burkholderia species and displays features consistent with ongoing genome erosion such as large proportions of pseudogenes and transposable elements. Reductive genome evolution affected a wide array of functional categories that may hinder the ability of the symbiont to be free-living. The genome does not encode functions commonly found in plant symbionts such as nitrogen fixation or plant hormone metabolism. Instead, a collection of genes for secondary metabolites’ synthesis is located on the 140 kb plasmid of B. kirkii and suggests that leaf nodule symbiosis benefits the host by providing protection against herbivores or pathogens.
92. C. Carlson, “Intra- and Interspecific Secondary Metabolite Variation Between Fruit and Leaf Tissues in the Hyperdiverse Psychotria Genus,” Undergraduate Honors Capstone Projects, May 2020. doi: 10.26076/b07a-0959.
93. M. F. Carneiro, “Advances in Coffee Biotechnology,” AgBiotechNet, vol. 1, no. 006, 1999. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.609.849. Abstract
    In the last 28 years, important advances have been made in in vitro coffee culture techniques, putting the crop in a position to benefit from biotechnology. Some systems of plant regeneration have already been optimised in coffee. This constitutes an important achievement with implications for the micropropagation of superior genotypes obtained by conventional breeding programmes and for the application of genetic transformation procedures. Techniques such as somatic embryogenesis, apical meristem and axillary bud culture, induction and development of adventitious buds, culture of zygotic embryos, anther and pollen culture, cell suspension and protoplast culture, and in vitro selection are presently at an advanced stage of development and are being used to improve coffee via biotechnological methods. Some important advances have also been made at the molecular level. The verification that coffee plants are capable of being infected by Agrobacterium tumefaciens and A. rhizogenes strains represents an important achievement. Direct DNA uptake, gene bombardment using the biolistic method and mediation by Agrobacterium are the most effective methods used in coffee transformation. The transient expression of gus (encoding b-glucuronidase) and stable transformation have been detected in both Coffea arabica and C. canephora.
94. J. P. F. Carvalho, G. R. Carvalho, A. D. Ferreira, J. C. de Rezende, R. E. B. de A. Dias, and A. M. de Carvalho, “Dinâmica de macronutrientes em genótipos de Coffea canephora com potencial para utilização como porta-enxerto,” Coffee Science - ISSN 1984-3909, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 176–183, May 2015. http://www.coffeescience.ufla.br/index.php/Coffeescience/article/view/809. Abstract
    The cultivate Apoatã 2258 (Coffea canephora) has been used as a rootstock cultivar of Coffea arabica. However, due to the wide availability of genetic resources found in different regions of the country, there is a vast field to be explored in the research of new genotypes to be used as rootstock. The choice of these materials should be based in combination with the graft and adaptation to the ecosystem where it is inserted.Thus, this study aimed at evaluating the efficiency of absorption, translocation and use of macronutrients in genotypes of C. canephora, to determine their potential of use as rootstocks. Two experiments were carried out in a period of five months in a greenhouse, using the process of hydroponics, growing in pots containing nutrient solution. In the experiment 1 (E1) , treatments included five C. canephora genotypes (Apoatã IAC3598-3B, Apoatã IAC3597-1A, Apoatã IAC3599-2A-1A, Apoatã IAC3598 and Apoatã IAC3597-9B) and two C. arabica cultivars (Palma II and Oeiras), used as rootstock. In experiment 2 (E2), the five C. canephora genotypes described, were cultivated on two types of seedlings (ungrafted and self grafted). Experimental design was factorial (5x2) and it was used the random block design, with five replicates. The genotypes Apoatã IAC3597-1A and Apoatã IAC3597-9B provide higher average uptake, translocation and nutrient use efficiency and they can be considered suitable choices for use as rootstocks.
95. L. B. D. Carvalho, P. L. C. A. Alves, and S. O. Duke, “Hormesis with Glyphosate Depends on Coffee Growth Stage,” Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências, vol. 85, pp. 813–822, May 2013. doi: 10.1590/S0001-37652013005000027. Abstract
    Weed management systems in almost all Brazilian coffee plantations allow herbicide spray to drift on crop plants. In order to evaluate if there is any effect of the most commonly used herbicide in coffee production, glyphosate, on coffee plants, a range of glyphosate doses were applied directly on coffee plants at two distinct plant growth stages. Although growth of both young and old plants was reduced at higher glyphosate doses, low doses caused no effects on growth characteristics of young plants and stimulated growth of older plants. Therefore, hormesis with glyphosate is dependent on coffee plant growth stage at the time of herbicide application.
96. C. A. M. Carvalho, R. M. Guimarães, and T. T. de A. Silva, “Priming Em Matriz Sólida De Sementes De Café Armazenadas Com Alta Umidade,” Coffee Science - ISSN 1984-3909, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 98–106, 2011. http://www.coffeescience.ufla.br/index.php/Coffeescience/article/view/405. Abstract
    The water content of seeds and temperature affect the biological processes, determining different results when seeds areexposed to different levels of these factors. When seeds are subjected to priming, we expect improvement in the physiological qualityof seeds, but while promising, this procedure is still in the experimental phase in coffee seeds. In order to evaluate the effects of solidmatrix priming at three different temperatures to evaluate the performance of coffee seeds (Coffea arabica L.) stored for up to twelvemonths, we carried out this research at the Central Laboratory of Seed Analysis in the Agriculture Department, Universidade Federalde Lavras, Lavras - MG. Seeds with 36.0% moisture content were sorted, processed, packed in polyethylene bags and kept in coldstorage for up to 12 months. At quarterly intervals, the seed samples were subjected to solid matrix priming, at temperatures of 20 °C,30 °C and 40 °C for 6 days. One control, without priming, was also evaluated. The physiological conditioning of solid matrix primingof C. Arabica seeds, held for 6 days at 20 °C and 30 °C favors the emergence of seedlings in seeds stored for 9 months and under 40°C, is harmful to the C. arabica seeds.
97. Y. Castilla-Valdes, M. E. Gonzalez-Vega, and L. Espinosa-Torres, “In Vitro Conservation of Coffee-Tree (Coffea Arabica L.) by Decreasing Mineral Salts in the Culture Medium.,” Cultivos Tropicales, vol. 41, no. 1, 2020. http://scielo.sld.cu/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0258-59362020000100004. Abstract
    The importance of the conservation of plant genetic resources is becoming higher at times when the consequences of global climate change are more acute. The coffee genus (Coffea spp) is not exempt from these risks, so it is researched some alternatives for its ex situ conservation. Specifically, the in vitro conservation methods known as ’slow growth’ allow the medium-term preservation of plant material, by decreasing the growth rate and the frequency between subcultures. Studies are needed on the independent effect of variations in the concentration of essential macro and microelements in the medium-term preservation of coffee. The objective of the work was to determine the effect of the decrease of the mineral content of the culture medium in the response of in vitro coffee plants (Coffea arabica L.) preserved by a period between two and six months. The plants, previously obtained in vitro, were cultured in modified MS medium, with three treatments consisting in the reduction to 75, 50 and 25 % of their macro and microelements. The survival, the number of leaf pairs, the leaf abscission and the percentage of rooted plants were evaluated at two, four and six months. In the treatment of 50 % MS, the survival percentages varied between 85 and 100 %, and were obtained intermediate values of leaf pairs and leaf abscission, with respect to the rest of the treatments. In addition, the plants developed roots that allowed them to survive despite the lack of nutrients. With this treatment, which represents a saving of the half of the mineral components of the culture medium, it is considered feasible to preserve the coffee plants for a period up to six months.
98. A. Castro et al., “Effect of Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis ‘binomio ayahuasca’ ingestion in the rat hippocampus.,” Anales de la Facultad de Medicina, vol. 77, no. 4, pp. 339–344, 2016. doi: 10.15381/anales.v77i4.12646. Abstract
    Objective. To assess the effect of Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis ’binomio ayahuasca’ ingestion in rat hippocampus. Design. Experimental, descriptive, analytical, and cross-sectional study. Institution. Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Resources, Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Peru. Biological material....
99. E. G. Cata-Preta et al., “Ayahuasca and Its DMT- and β-Carbolines – Containing Ingredients Block the Expression of Ethanol-Induced Conditioned Place Preference in Mice: Role of the Treatment Environment,” Frontiers in Pharmacology, vol. 9, 2018. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2018.00561. Abstract
    Ayahuasca is a hallucinogenic beverage produced from the decoction of Banisteriopsis caapi (Bc) and Psychotria viridis (Pv), β-carboline- and N,N-dimethyltryptamine(DMT)-containing plants, respectively. Accumulating evidence suggests that ayahuasca may have therapeutic effects on ethanol abuse. It is not known, however, whether its effects are dependent on the presence of DMT or if non-DMT-containing components would have therapeutic effects. The aim of the present study was to investigate the rewarding properties of ayahuasca (30, 100, and 300 mg/kg, orally), Bc (132, 440, and 1320 mg/kg, orally) and Pv (3.75, 12.5 and 37.5 mg/kg, i.p.) extracts and their effects on ethanol (1.8 g/kg, i.p.) reward using the conditioned place preference (CPP) paradigm in male mice. Animals were conditioned with ayahuasca, Bc or Pv extracts during 8 sessions. An intermediate, but not a high, dose of ayahuasca induced CPP in mice. Bc and Pv did not induce CPP. Subsequently, the effects of those extracts were tested on the development of ethanol-induced CPP. Ayahuasca, Bc or Pv were administered before ethanol injections during conditioning sessions. While Bc and Pv exerted no effects on ethanol-induced CPP, pretreatment with ayahuasca blocked the development of CPP to ethanol. Finally, the effects of a post-ethanol-conditioning treatment with ayahuasca, Bc or Pv on the expression of ethanol-induced CPP were tested. Animals were conditioned with ethanol, and subsequently treated with either ayahuasca, Bc or Pv in the CPP environment previously associated with saline or ethanol for 6 days. Animals were then reexposed to ethanol and ethanol-induced CPP was quantified on the following day. Treatment with all compounds in the ethanol-paired environment blocked the expression of ethanol-induced CPP. Administration of an intermediate, but not a high, dose of ayahuasca and Bc, as well as Pv administration, in the saline-paired compartment blocked the expression of ethanol-induced CPP. The present study sheds light into the components underlying the therapeutic effects of ayahuasca on ethanol abuse, indicating that ayahuasca and its plant components can decrease ethanol reward at doses that do not exert abuse liability. Importantly, the treatment environment seems to influence the therapeutic effects of ayahuasca and Bc, providing important insights into clinical practice.
100. A. D. Cavalcante et al., “Influence of Environmental Factors and Cultural Methods on the Content of N,N-Dimethyltryptamine in Psychotria Viridis (Rubiaceae),” Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society, vol. 29, pp. 1245–1255, Jun. 2018. doi: 10.21577/0103-5053.20170221. Abstract
     Psychotria viridis is one of the species that produces N,N-dimethyltryptamine. Its decoction together with other species, such as Banisteriopsis caapi, produces ayahuasca, a beverage used for ritualistic and medicinal purposes. The goal of this study was to understand how environmental factors and cultivation methods influenced the content of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in P. viridis. Over all four seasons, leaf samples were collected from 25 different locations in 14 Brazilian states, and Federal District. Environmental parameters, micro and macronutrients, plant characteristics, information on farming methods were correlated with N,N-dimethyltryptamine content, determined by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Greatest effects on the N,N-dimethyltryptamine amount were associated with seasonality, altitude, latitude and biome type. A positive correlation between N and Mg content and N,N-dimethyltryptamine levels was statistically established. By regression analysis, the adequate foliar nutrient levels that would result in the concentration of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in cultivated plants similar to that of Amazonian P. viridis were equated.
101. P. C. Cavatte, Á. A. G. Oliveira, L. E. Morais, S. C. V. Martins, L. M. V. P. Sanglard, and F. M. DaMatta, “Could Shading Reduce the Negative Impacts of Drought on Coffee? A Morphophysiological Analysis,” Physiologia Plantarum, vol. 144, no. 2, pp. 111–122, 2012. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3054.2011.01525.x. Abstract
     Based on indirect evidence, it was previously suggested that shading could attenuate the negative impacts of drought on coffee (Coffea arabica), a tropical crop species native to shady environments. A variety (47) of morphological and physiological traits were examined in plants grown in 30-l pots in either full sunlight or 85% shade for 8 months, after which a 4-month water shortage was implemented. Overall, the traits showed weak or negligible responses to the light × water interaction, explaining less than 10% of the total data variation. Only slight variations in biomass allocation were observed in the combined shade and drought treatment. Differences in relative growth rates were mainly associated with physiological and not with morphological adjustments. In high light, drought constrained the photosynthetic rate through stomatal limitations with no sign of apparent photoinhibition; in low light, such constraints were apparently linked to biochemical factors. Sun-grown plants displayed osmotic adjustments, decreased tissue elasticities and improved long-term water use efficiencies, especially under drought. Regardless of the water availability, higher concentrations of lipids, total phenols, total soluble sugars and lignin were found in high light compared to shade conditions, in contrast to the effects on cellulose and hemicellulose concentrations. Proline concentrations increased in water-deprived plants, particularly those grown under full sun. Phenotypic plasticity was much higher in response to the light than to the water supply. Overall, shading did not alleviate the negative impacts of drought on the coffee tree.
102. P. C. Cavatte, N. F. Rodríguez-López, S. C. V. Martins, M. S. Mattos, L. M. V. P. Sanglard, and F. M. DaMatta, “Functional Analysis of the Relative Growth Rate, Chemical Composition, Construction and Maintenance Costs, and the Payback Time of Coffea Arabica L. Leaves in Response to Light and Water Availability,” Journal of Experimental Botany, vol. 63, no. 8, pp. 3071–3082, May 2012. doi: 10.1093/jxb/ers027. Abstract
     In this study, the combined effects of light and water availability on the functional relationships of the relative growth rate (RGR), leaf chemical composition, construction and maintenance costs, and benefits in terms of payback time for Coffea arabica are presented. Coffee plants were grown for 8 months in 100% or 15% full sunlight and then a four-month water shortage was implemented. Plants grown under full sunlight were also transferred to shade and vice versa. Overall, most of the traits assessed were much more responsive to the availability of light than to the water supply. Larger construction costs (12%), primarily associated with elevated phenol and alkaloid pools, were found under full sunlight. There was a positive correlation between these compounds and the RGR, the mass-based net carbon assimilation rate and the carbon isotope composition ratio, which, in turn, correlated negatively with the specific leaf area. The payback time was remarkably lower in the sun than in shade leaves and increased greatly in water-deprived plants. The differences in maintenance costs among the treatments were narrow, with no significant impact on the RGR, and there was no apparent trade-off in resource allocation between growth and defence. The current irradiance during leaf bud formation affected both the specific leaf area and leaf physiology upon transferring the plants from low to high light and vice versa. In summary, sun-grown plants fixed more carbon for growth and secondary metabolism, with the net effect of an increased RGR.
103. A. Cenci, M.-C. Combes, and P. Lashermes, “Genome Evolution in Diploid and Tetraploid Coffea Species as Revealed by Comparative Analysis of Orthologous Genome Segments,” Plant molecular biology, vol. 78, no. 1-2, pp. 135–145, Jan. 2012. doi: 10.1007/s11103-011-9852-3. Abstract
     Sequence comparison of orthologous regions enables estimation of the divergence between genomes, analysis of their evolution and detection of particular features of the genomes, such as sequence rearrangements and transposable elements. Despite the economic importance of Coffea species, little genomic information is currently available. Coffea is a relatively young genus that includes more than one hundred diploid species and a single tetraploid species. Three Coffea orthologous regions of 470–900 kb were analyzed and compared: both subgenomes of allotetraploid Coffea arabica (contributed by the diploid species Coffea eugenioides and Coffea canephora) and the genome of diploid C. canephora. Sequence divergence was calculated on global alignments or on coding and non-coding sequences separately. A search for transposable elements detected 43 retrotransposons and 198 transposons in the sequences analyzed. Comparative insertion analysis made it possible to locate 165 TE insertions in the phylogenetic tree of the three genomes/subgenomes. In the tetraploid C. arabica, a homoeologous non-reciprocal transposition (HNRT) was detected and characterized: a 50 kb region of the C. eugenioides derived subgenome replaced the C. canephora derived counterpart. Comparative sequence analysis on three Coffea genomes/subgenomes revealed almost perfect gene synteny, low sequence divergence and a high number of shared transposable elements. Compared to the results of similar analysis in other genera (Aegilops/Triticum and Oryza), Coffea genomes/subgenomes appeared to be dramatically less diverged, which is consistent with the relatively recent radiation of the Coffea genus. Based on nucleotide substitution frequency, the HNRT was dated at 10,000–50,000 years BP, which is also the most recent estimation of the origin of C. arabica.
104. N. Chabrillange, S. Dussert, F. Engelmann, S. Doulbeau, and S. Hamon, “Desiccation Tolerance in Relation to Soluble Sugar Contents in Seeds of Ten Coffee (Coffea L.) Species,” Seed Science Research, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 393–396, Sep. 2000. doi: 10.1017/S0960258500000428. Abstract
     Large differences in seed desiccation sensitivity have been observed previously among ten coffee species (Coffea arabica, C. brevipes, C. canephora, C. eugenioides, C. humilis, C. liberica, C. pocsii, C. pseudo-zanguebariae, C. sessiliflora and C.stenophylla). Of these species, C. liberica and C. humilis were the most sensitive to desiccation and C. pseudozanguebariae the most tolerant. A study was carried out using the same seed lots to investigate if these differences in desiccation tolerance could be correlated with differences in soluble sugar content. Soluble sugars were extracted from dry seeds and analysed using high performance liquid chromatography. The seed monosaccharide (glucose and fructose) content was very low (1.5 to 2 mg g-1dry weight [dw]) in all species studied. The sucrose content ranged from 33 mg g-1dw in C. liberica seeds to 89 mg g-1dw in seeds of C. pocsii. Raffinose was detected in the seeds of only five species (C.arabica, C.brevipes, C.humilis, C.sessiliflora, C.stenophylla), among which only three species (C.arabica, C.sessiliflora and C.brevipes) also contained stachyose. Both raffinose and stachyose were present in very low quantities (0.3–1.4 mg g-1dw and 0.1–0.7 mg g-1dw, respectively). Verbascose was never detected. No significant relationship was found between seed desiccation sensitivity and: (i) the sugar content; (ii) the presence/absence of oligosaccharides; and (iii) the oligosaccharide:sucrose ratio.
105. M. I. Chambers, M. G. Appley, C. M. Longo, and R. A. Musah, “Detection and Quantification of Psychoactive N,N-Dimethyltryptamine in Ayahuasca Brews by Ambient Ionization High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry,” ACS Omega, vol. 5, no. 44, pp. 28547–28554, Nov. 2020. doi: 10.1021/acsomega.0c03196. Abstract
     The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime designated twenty psychoactive botanical species as “plants of concern” because of their increased recreational abuse. Four of these are used to prepare ayahuasca brews. The complexity of the plant matrices, as well as the beverage itself, make the identification and quantification of the Schedule I component, N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), a time-consuming and resource-intensive endeavor when performed using conventional approaches previously reported. Reported here is the development of a rapid validated method for the quantification of DMT in ayahuasca by direct analysis in real time-high-resolution mass spectrometry (DART-HRMS). This ambient ionization approach also enables identification of ayahuasca through detection of the secondary metabolites associated with its plant constituents. Analysis of six ayahuasca brews created using different combinations of DMT/harmala alkaloid-containing plants resulted in beverages with DMT levels of 45.7–230.5 mg/L. The detected amounts were consistent with previously reported values determined by conventional approaches.
106. T. Charoonratana, J. Wungsintaweekul, N. Keawpradub, and R. Verpoorte, “Molecular Cloning and Expression of Tryptophan Decarboxylase from Mitragyna Speciosa,” Acta Physiologiae Plantarum, vol. 35, no. 8, pp. 2611–2621, Aug. 2013. doi: 10.1007/s11738-013-1296-8. Abstract
     Tryptophan decarboxylase (TDC) catalyzes the decarboxylation of tryptophan to tryptamine in mitragynine biosynthesis via the shikimate pathway. Using the rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) technique, the gene encoding TDC from Mitragyna speciosa was cloned (designated as MsTDC). The MsTDC cDNA contained an open reading frame (ORF) of 1,521 base pairs (bp) encoding 506 amino acid residues. It had a pyridoxal-phosphate (PLP)-binding site at the amino acid position 313–334 residues. The MsTDC showed homology of 68–76 % to the TDC of other plants. Heterologous expression in Escherichia coli afforded the soluble proteins as an apparent band of 57 kDa as judged by SDS-PAGE. Expression of the MsTDC in M. speciosa hairy roots under the 35S promoter was performed by insertion of MsTDC into pCAMBIA1300-gfp. The transgenic hairy root lines were detected by fluorescence microscopy and showed an increased accumulation of tryptamine.
107. T. Charoonratanaa, J. Wungsintaweekul, P. Pathompak, M. I. Georgiev, Y. H. Choi, and R. Verpoorte, “Limitation of Mitragynine Biosynthesis in Mitragyna Speciosa (Roxb.) Korth. through Tryptamine Availability,” Zeitschrift Fur Naturforschung. C, Journal of Biosciences, vol. 68, no. 9-10, pp. 394–405, 2013 Sep-Oct. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24459773/. Abstract
     Metabolite profiles of Mitragyna speciosa were determined by means of 1H NMR-based and HPLC-based analyses. The results indicated that high contents of secologanin, caffeic acid, gallic acid, epigallocatechin, and mitragynine were accumulated in leaves. In M. speciosa, feedings of tryptamine, tryptophan, phenylalanine or tyrosine significantly increased the mitragynine contents. Feedings of tryptamine and loganin also enhanced the mitragynine accumulation, but feeding of loganin only did not affect the mitragynine level. The mRNA levels of anthranilate synthase alpha subunit (ASA), tryptophan decarboxylase (TDC), and strictosidine synthase (STR) were measured by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) in control plants and those exposed to methyl jasmonate (MJ; 10 microM). All genes responded to MJ after a 24-h treatment. The mitragynine contents were also enhanced and corresponded to the transcript levels. From the present results we conclude that a high content of secologanin together with a undetectable level of tryptamine in M. speciosa feature the limitation of mitragynine biosynthesis. Additionally, expression of all the genes limits production of an essential precursor for mitragynine production.
108. N. J.-Y. Chear et al., “Exploring the Chemistry of Alkaloids from Malaysian Mitragyna Speciosa (Kratom) and the Role of Oxindoles on Human Opioid Receptors,” Journal of Natural Products, vol. 84, no. 4, pp. 1034–1043, Apr. 2021. doi: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.0c01055. Abstract
     Ten indole and oxindole alkaloids (1–10) were isolated from the freshly collected leaves of Malaysian Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom). The chemical structures of these compounds were established on the basis of extensive 1D and 2D NMR and HRMS data analysis. The spectroscopic data of mitragynine oxindole B (4) are reported herein for the first time. The spatial configuration of mitragynine oxindole B (4) was confirmed by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. Simultaneous quantification of the isolated alkaloids in the M. speciosa leaf specimens collected from different locations in the northern region of Peninsular Malaysia was also performed using UPLC-MS/MS. The oxindole alkaloids (1–4) and the indole alkaloid (10) were assessed for binding affinity at opioid receptors. Corynoxine (1) showed high binding affinity to μ-opioid receptors with a Ki value of 16.4 nM. Further, corynoxine (1) was 1.8-fold more potent than morphine in rats subjected to a nociceptive hot plate assay. These findings have important implications for evaluating the combined effects of the minor oxindole alkaloids in the overall therapeutic activity of M. speciosa.
109. X. Chen, K. Mu, and D. D. Kitts, “Characterization of Phytochemical Mixtures with Inflammatory Modulation Potential from Coffee Leaves Processed by Green and Black Tea Processing Methods,” Food Chemistry, vol. 271, pp. 248–258, Jan. 2019. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.07.097. Abstract
     Our previous study reported that different tea processing methods along with the age of coffee leaves affected antioxidant and anti-inflammatory bioactivities; however, identification of phytochemical components or associated mixtures that contribute to the anti-/pro-inflammatory activities was not determined. Herein, we report results of additional experiments designed to characterize the phytochemical composition of fractionated coffee leaf extract, derived from Japanese-style-green-tea-process-young (JGTP-Y) and black-tea-process-mature (BTP-M) leaves and related these data to anti-/pro-inflammatory activities. The aqueous fraction of BTP-M coffee leaves induced nitric oxide (NO), iNOS, COX-2, IL-6 and IL-10 production in Raw 264.7 cells. A 40% methanol fraction possessed greatest anti-inflammatory activities in IFN-γ and LPS treated Raw 264.7 cells (P\,< 0.05). The anti-inflammatory activities of coffee leaf fractions could not only be attributed to chlorogenic acids, mangiferin, rutin, and caffeine content, but possibly subtle interactions of mixtures of bioactive molecules.
110. X.-M. Chen, Z. Ma, and D. D. Kitts, “Effects of Processing Method and Age of Leaves on Phytochemical Profiles and Bioactivity of Coffee Leaves,” Food Chemistry, vol. 249, pp. 143–153, May 2018. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.12.073. Abstract
     The use of coffee leaves as a novel beverage has recently received consumer interest, but there is little known about how processing methods affect the quality of final product. We applied tea (white, green, oolong and black tea) processing methods to process coffee leaves and then investigated their effects on phytochemical composition and related antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Using Japanese-style green tea-processing of young leaves, and black tea-processing of mature (BTP-M) coffee leaves, produced contrasting effects on phenolic content, and associated antioxidant activity and nitric oxide (NO) inhibitory activity in IFN-γ and LPS induced Raw 264.7 cells. BTP-M coffee leaves also had significantly (P\,<\,.05) higher responses in NO, iNOS, COX-2, as well as a number of cytokines, in non-induced Raw 264.7. Our findings show that the age of coffee leaves and the type of processing method affect phytochemical profiles sufficiently to produce characteristic antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities.
111. X. Chen, “A Review on Coffee Leaves: Phytochemicals, Bioactivities and Applications,” Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, vol. 59, no. 6, pp. 1008–1025, Mar. 2019. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2018.1546667. Abstract
     Coffee leaves have a long history for use as ethnomedicine and tea beverage by locals from countries where coffee plants grow. Recently, attentions have been paid to their health benefits to human beings because of abundant bioactive components in coffee leaves. However, the researches related to the bioactivities, applications, and the impacts of processing methods on the phytochemical composition and activities of coffee leaves are scarce. The reviews specific to coffee leaves in these aspects are rare too. Due to the growing interests to coffee leaves, in this review, the chemical compositions in coffee leaves and the influence of environmental conditions and processing methods on them were summarized. Furthermore, various applications of coffee leaves, including ethnomedicine, coffee leaf tea, therapeutic agent, packaging material, tobacco substitute, organic fungicide, personal hygienic products, and animal feed et al. were presented. The future prospects of coffee leaves are also discussed. In conclusion, coffee leaf is a very promising resource in the areas of food and industry, especially, in the beverage industry. The researches in understanding impacts of the processing methods on the phytochemicals, enzymes, bioactivities, and flavor of coffee leaves are highly needed.
112. Z.-H. Cheng, B.-Y. Yu, and X.-W. Yang, “27-Nor-Triterpenoid Glycosides from Mitragyna Inermis,” Phytochemistry, vol. 61, no. 4, pp. 379–382, Oct. 2002. doi: 10.1016/S0031-9422(02)00244-3. Abstract
     From the bark of Mitragyna inermis, two 27-nor-triterpenoid glycosides, named inermiside I (1) and II (2), were isolated and their structures determined based on extensive 2D-NMR and MS spectral analysis as 6-deoxy-β-d-glucopyranosyl-[3-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1→6)-β-d-glucopyranosyl]-pyrocincholate and 6-deoxy-β-d-glucopyranosyl-pyrocincholate, respectively. In addition, the known quinovic acid (6), 3-O-[β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl]-quinovoic acid (3),β-d-glucopyranosyl-[3-O-(β-d-glucopyranosyl)]-quinoviate (4) and cytotoxic 3-O-(β-d-6-deoxy-glucopyranosyl)-quinovic acid (5) were also isolated.
113. C.-H. Chou and G. R. Waller, “Possible Allelopathic Constituents ofCoffea Arabica,” Journal of Chemical Ecology, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 643–654, May 1980. doi: 10.1007/BF00987675. Abstract
     The aqueous extracts of leaves, stems, and roots ofCoffea arabica significantly inhibited the seed germination and radicle growth of rye grass, lettuce, and fescue. When the extracts were diluted to 1% solution, significant suppression of lettuce growth was still found and was particularly pronounced in the extract of young seedlings. The paper chromato-gram of the ether fraction of an aqueous extract of coffee leaves was bioassayed with lettuce seeds and revealed a remarkable inhibition throughout the chromatogram except for the segment ofRf 0.00–0.12. Paper without spotting extract was used as a standard. The phytotoxins present in coffee tissue were identified by paper and thin-layer chro-matography and mass spectrometry. The compounds include caffeine, theobromine, theophylline, paraxanthine, scopoletin, and chlorogenic, ferulic,p-coumaric,p-hydroxybenzoic, caffeic, and vanillic acids. All compounds except caffeic acid exhibited significant phytotoxicity to lettuce growth at a concentration of 100 ppm.
114. E. Cinosi et al., “Following ‘the Roots’ of Kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa): The Evolution of an Enhancer from a Traditional Use to Increase Work and Productivity in Southeast Asia to a Recreational Psychoactive Drug in Western Countries,” BioMed research international, 2015. doi: 10.1155/2015/968786. Abstract
     It is concluded that the use of kratom is not negligible, especially for self-medication, and more clinical, pharmacological, and socioanthropological studies as well as a better international collaboration are needed to tackle this marginally explored phenomenon. The use of substances to enhance human abilities is a constant and cross-cultural feature in the evolution of humanity. Although much has changed over time, the availability on the Internet, often supported by misleading marketing strategies, has made their use even more likely and risky. This paper will explore the case of Mitragyna speciosa Korth. (kratom), a tropical tree used traditionally to combat fatigue and improve work productivity among farm populations in Southeast Asia, which has recently become popular as novel psychoactive substance in Western countries. Specifically, it (i) reviews the state of the art on kratom pharmacology and identification; (ii) provides a comprehensive overview of kratom use cross-culturally; (iii) explores the subjective experiences of users; (iv) identifies potential risks and side-effects related to its consumption. Finally, it concludes that the use of kratom is not negligible, especially for self-medication, and more clinical, pharmacological, and socioanthropological studies as well as a better international collaboration are needed to tackle this marginally explored phenomenon.
115. P. Ciridhar, E. P. Indu, G. A. Ravishankar, and A. Chandrasekar, “Influence of Triacontanol on Somatic Embryogenesis in Coffea Arabica L. and Coffea Canephora P. Ex Fr.,” In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology-Plant, vol. 40, no. 2, pp. 200–203, 2004. doi: 10.1079/IVP2003519. Abstract
     A highly reproducible method for regeneration of Coffea arabica and C. canephora plants via direct somatic embryogenesis from cultured leaf and stem segments of regenerated plants was developed. Embryogenesis was influenced by the presence of triacontanol (TRIA) in the medium. TRIA incorporated at 4.55 and 11.38 μM in half-strength MS basal medium containing 1.1 μM 6-benzyladenine (BA) and 2.28 μM indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) induced direct somatic embryogenesis in both species. A maximum of 260±31.8 and 59.2±12.8 somatic embryos per culture were induced from in vitro leaf explants of C. arabica and C. canephora, respectively. TRIA also induced embryo formation from in vitro stem segment callus tissues along with multiplication of primary embryos into secondary embryos. By using TRIA, it was possible to obtain somatic embryogenesis in C. arabica and C. canephora.
116. J. M. Clemente, H. E. P. Martinez, A. W. Pedrosa, Y. Poltronieri Neves, P. R. Cecon, and J. L. Jifon, “Boron, Copper, and Zinc Affect the Productivity, Cup Quality, and Chemical Compounds in Coffee Beans,” Journal of Food Quality, vol. 2018, p. e7960231, May 2018. doi: 10.1155/2018/7960231. Abstract
     Micronutrients perform specific and essential functions in plant metabolism, and their deficiency may lead to metabolic disturbances that affect coffee production and quality beverage. In Brazil, the B, Cu, and Zn are the main micronutrients, and these are provided by soil or foliar fertilization, frequently with low recovery efficiency. This work objected verifying the feasibility of supplying of B, Cu, and Zn via insertion of tablets in the orthotropic branch of Coffea arabica, as well as to evaluate the coffee plant response in terms of productivity and quality of the beverage. Adult plants received B, Cu, and Zn, each micronutrient alone or combined with the other two, by foliar fertilization or by tablets inserted in the trunk base. The productivity, cupping quality, and some chemical indicators of beans quality were evaluated in two crop seasons. Boron, copper, and zinc supplied by foliar spray or solid injections in the trunk influenced the chemical composition and quality of the coffee beans, characterized by the cupping test and the levels of caffeine, trigonelline, sucrose, glucose, arabinose, mannose, 3-caffeoylquinic acid, 5-caffeoylquinic acid, polyphenol oxidase activity, and total phenolic compounds. Copper and zinc were equivalent in either form of supply regarding the production and quality of coffee.
117. M. N. Clifford and K. C. Willson, Eds., Coffee: Botany, Biochemistry and Production of Beans and Beverage, 1st ed. Boston, MA: AVI Publishing Company, 1985. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4615-6657-1.
118. M. Coa Urbaez, J. R. Mendez Natera, R. Silva Acuña, and S. Mundarain Padilla, “Evaluation of chemical and mechanical methods to promote the seed germination and production of match seedlings of coffee (Coffea arabica) var. Catuaí Rojo.,” IDESIA, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 43–53, 2014. doi: 10.4067/S0718-34292014000100006. Abstract
     The experiment was carried out in the open at the Escuela Técnica Robinsoniana Aragua de Maturin, located in the capital of Piar municipality Monagas State in order to evaluate the effect of different coffee seed scarification treatments on germination and formation of match seedlings. Selected coffee seeds of variety Catuai Red from Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrícolas were used. Washed river sand was used as a substrate, it was disinfected with boiling water and put in garden type trays 12 x 40 x 15 cm. The three treatments with mechanical scarification were without water immersion and immersion for 24 and 48 hours, all six treatments employing chemical stratification with battery acid (Copper®) and muriatic acid (Opin®) for 10, 20 and 30 minutes of immersion; moreover, two treatments with immersion in water for 24 and 48 hours and the control treatment was the used one for coffee producer (without scarification and immersion). The experimental design was a randomized complete block with 12 treatments and four replications. The experimental unit consisted of 50 seeds. Evaluations were carried out at 25, 30, 40 and 50 days after sowing (DAS). Treatments where coffee seeds were subjected to mechanical scarification and water immersion for 24 and 48 hours showed the highest values of germination and formation of match seedlings, in which, it was found that over 60% of germination occurred at 25 days and formation of match seedlings occurred at 30 DAS. Chemical scarification treatments using commercial products with muriatic acid and battery acid did not have any advantage in relation to the control.
119. S. V. B. Coelho, M. A. de Figueiredo, A. da C. S. Clemente, L. F. S. Coelho, and S. D. V. F. da Rosa, “Alterações fisiológicas e bioquímicas em sementes de café secas em sílica gel e soluções salinas saturadas,” Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira, vol. 50, pp. 483–491, Jun. 2015. doi: 10.1590/S0100-204X2015000600007. Abstract
     O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar alterações fisiológicas e bioquímicas em sementes de café submetidas à secagem rápida, em sílica gel, e à secagem lenta, em soluções salinas saturadas. As sementes foram secas até que atingissem os seguintes teores de água: 40, 30, 20, 15, 10 e 5% (base úmida). Após a secagem, uma parte das sementes foi imediatamente avaliada quanto ao desempenho fisiológico e ao perfil de enzimas do processo oxidativo, e outra parte foi avaliada após armazenagem em condição hermética, em câmara fria e seca, por quatro meses. A velocidade de secagem e o teor final de água tiveram efeito significativo sobre a qualidade fisiológica das sementes. Após a secagem rápida em sílica gel, as sementes toleraram teores finais de água mais baixos. No entanto, após a secagem lenta, as sementes com teores finais de água mais elevados apresentaram maior qualidade. O período de armazenamento não afetou a germinação, mas prejudicou o vigor das sementes. A secagem rápida apresenta maior potencial de dano ao endosperma do que aos embriões. O perfil enzimático das sementes de café é afetado pelo teor final de água e pela velocidade de secagem.
120. M. de F. B. Coelho, V. A. Teixeira, R. A. B. Azevedo, and M. C. de F. e Albuquerque, “Propagation of Ipecac (Psychotria Ipecacuanha) on Different Substrates and Planting Position of Cuttings,” Horticultura Brasileira, vol. 31, pp. 467–471, Sep. 2013. doi: 10.1590/S0102-05362013000300020. Abstract
     A poaia (Psychotria ipecacuanha), Rubiaceae, é importante espécie medicinal, nativa da América, com a maior área de ocorrência no estado de Mato Grosso, principalmente no município de Cáceres. O objetivo neste trabalho foi verificar o efeito de substratos, da posição de estacas de raiz, e de tipos de estacas na propagação de P. ipecacuanha. No primeiro experimento foram usadas estacas de raiz com 2 cm de comprimento no delineamento experimental de blocos ao acaso, no esquema de parcela subdividida 2 x 2, sendo duas posições (vertical e horizontal) e dois substratos (areia e espuma fenólica), com 15 repetições com 15 estacas cada. No segundo experimento introduzimos estacas basais e apicais da raiz e da parte aérea nos substratos areia, comercial para hortaliças, solo do ambiente natural da espécie e espuma fenólica. O delineamento experimental foi em blocos casualizados no esquema fatorial 4 x 4, com quatro repetições e cinco estacas por parcela. As variáveis analisadas foram diâmetro, comprimento, número de brotações e número de folhas por brotação. A produção de mudas de P. ipecacuanha pode ser feita com estacas de raiz de 2 cm de comprimento plantadas na posição horizontal ou estacas da parte aérea apical com duas gemas, plantadas na posição vertical e em substratos areia ou solo da área de ocorrência da espécie.
121. S. V. B. Coelho et al., “Ultrastructural Damage in Coffee Seeds Exposed to Drying and to Subzero (°C) Temperatures,” Coffee Science - ISSN 1984-3909, vol. 15, pp. e151760–e151760, Aug. 2020. doi: 10.25186/.v15i.1760. Abstract
     During drying and freezing, protective mechanisms act to maintain seed physiological quality. Some of these mechanisms contribute to the integrity of cell membranes. The damage caused to cell membranes due to cell stress can be seen in ultrastructural studies. The aim of this study was to investigate ultrastructural changes in endosperm cells of coffee seeds brought about by drying and by exposure to low temperatures. Seeds of Coffea arabica  were dried in silica gel to moisture contents of 40, 20, and 5 % (wb) and brought to equilibrium at temperatures of 10, -20, and -86oC. Germination, vigor, and tetrazolium tests were performed for evaluation of seed physiological quality. Ultrastructural damage was analyzed by scanning electron microscopy. Coffee seeds with 40% moisture content have whole, swollen, and expanded cells, with a filled lumen and without signs of damage. The physiological and ultrastructural quality of seeds exposed to below zero temperatures with 40% moisture content is compromised. They have null germination and empty cells, indicating leakage of cell content. Drying of coffee seeds leads to uniform contraction of inner cell content. Drying of coffee seeds to 5% moisture content leads to intense contraction of cell volume, with physiological and ultrastructural damage. Key words: Scanning electron microscopy; desiccation tolerance; Coffea arabica L.
122. L. R. Corrêa, G. L. G. Soares, and A. G. Fett-Neto, “Allelopathic Potential of Psychotria Leiocarpa, a Dominant Understorey Species of Subtropical Forests,” South African Journal of Botany, vol. 74, no. 4, pp. 583–590, Nov. 2008. doi: 10.1016/j.sajb.2008.02.006. Abstract
     Psychotria leiocarpa is an understorey woody shrub native to the forests of southern Brazil, which occurs in groups of relatively high density. Leaves of field-grown plants contain approximately 2.5% of their dry weight as the N-glycosylated indolic alkaloid N,β-d-glucopyranosyl vincosamide (GPV). To find out if allelopathy could play a role in the distribution pattern of the species, several assays were performed. Aqueous extracts of dried powdered leaves at 4% (w/v) collected during the winter of 2004 inhibited the germination and/or early growth of three different test species. Lactuca sativa plantlets were affected when grown in soil containing dried P. leiocarpa leaves and on plates containing aqueous extracts of leaves of the same species. Partial chemical characterization of the extract was carried out and an allelopathic effect of the purified major leaf alkaloid GPV was not observed at the highest concentration tested of 10 ppm. Experiments with different organic extracts and sequential extractions were also performed. The data suggested that polar phenolic compounds or iridoids are responsible for the phytotoxic effect observed.
123. P. de S. C. Costa and M. L. M. de Carvalho, “Individual electrical conductivity test for evaluation of the physiological quality of coffee seeds (Coffea arabica L.),” Ciência e Agrotecnologia, vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 92–96, 2006. doi: 10.1590/S1413-70542006000100013. Abstract
     The conductivity test is used to measure the leaches from the seeds, which certaintily reflect the membrane system integrity. The test is rapid and it is of simple operation, but the methodology needs to be tested for each individual species in order to reach a better precision and accuracy. This work was conducted to determinate the partition point for the realization of electrical conductivity test in coffee seeds. Ten seed lots of Coffea arabica, cultivar Acaiá, without parchment, were used in this study. For the evaluation of the partition point, seeds were imbibed for 96 hours and submitted to the germination test, with the correlation between the conductivity values and those obtained in the germination test being evaluated. The partition point is 120,5µS.cm-1, considering 70% of germination.
124. A. M. Covre, F. L. Partelli, A. L. Mauri, and M. A. Dias, “Crescimento e desenvolvimento inicial de genótipos de café Conilon.,” REVISTA AGRO@MBIENTE ON-LINE, vol. 7, no. 2, p. 193, Sep. 2013. doi: 10.18227/1982-8470ragro.v7i2.944. Abstract
     Brazil is the largest producer and exporter of coffee and the State of Espírito Santo is the largest producer of coffee conilon (Coffea canephora). The clonal variety ‘Vitória Incaper 8142’, developed for this state environmental condition is composed of 13 genotypes with characteristics of interest. The aim of this study was to evaluate the growth and the development of conilon coffee seedlings, variety ‘Vitória Incaper 8142.’ The seedlings were grown at the Incaper Experimental Farm in the Marilândia City, and evaluations done at CEUNES-UFES in São Mateus in Espírito Santo State. The genotypes were evaluated by a randomized experimental statistical mode applying nine replicates. It was conducted to quantify the dry mass production, growth, root development, Dickson quality index, and nutrient content in different parts of the seedlings. The V8 and V10 genotype had higher development compared with other genotypes. Under the conditions evaluated, improved quality of seedlings of the genotypes was V2, V3, V4, V8, V9, V10, V11, and V12, which was determined by the Dickson quality index. Nitrogen and iron were the macro and micronutrients found in higher concentration, regardless of genotype.
125. A. F. Cowan and K. M. Elkins, “Detection and Identification of Kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa) and Marijuana (Cannabis Sativa) by a Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction High-Resolution Melt Duplex Assay,” Journal of Forensic Sciences, vol. 65, no. 1, pp. 52–60, 2020. doi: 10.1111/1556-4029.14167. Abstract
     Mitragyna speciosa (MS), a plant commonly known as kratom, is a widely used “legal high” opiate alternative for pain relief. DNA extracted from MS and 26 additional plant species was amplified by PCR using primers targeting the strictosidine beta-D-glucosidase (SGD) and secologanin synthase 2 (SLS2) genes and detected by high-resolution melt curves using three intercalating dyes. Amplicon sizes were confirmed using agarose gel electrophoresis. The observed melt temperatures for SGD and SLS2 were 77.08 ± 0.38°C and 77.61 ± 0.46°C, respectively, using SYBR® Green I; 80.18 ± 0.27°C and 80.59 ± 0.08°C, respectively, using Radiant™ Green; and 82.19 ± 0.04°C and 82.62 ± 0.13°C, respectively, using the LCGreen® PLUS dye. The SLS2 primers demonstrated higher specificity and identified MS DNA at 0.05 ng/μL. In a duplex reaction, SLS2 and tetrahydrocannabinoic acid synthase gene primers detected and differentiated MS and Cannabis sativa (CS) by melt peaks at 82.63 ± 0.35°C and 85.58 ± 0.23°C, respectively, using LCGreen® PLUS.
126. R. Cupull Santana, C. Sánchez Esmoris, M. Ferrer Viva, M. del C. Cupull Santana, and C. Pérez Navarro, “Effect of Trichoderma, Azotobacter and Mycorrhizas as Stimulatory Agents and Control of Rhizoctonia Solani in the Production of Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Seedlings.,” Centro Agrícola, vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 23–28, 2000. https://biblat.unam.mx/en/revista/centro-agricola/articulo/efecto-de-trichoderma-azotobacter-y-micorrizas-como-agentes-estimulantes-y-de-control-de-rhizoctonia-solani-en-la-produccion-de-posturas-de-cafeto-coffea-arabica-l. Abstract
     Coffea arabica;proteccion de las plantas;enfermedades fungosas;RHIZOCTONIA SOLANI;Trichoderma;Azotobacter;GLOMUS MOSSEAE;MYCORRHIZAEThe experiment was developed in the Coffee Research Station, in Jibacoa, Villa Clara, to a height of 340 msnm, with the objective of determine the stimulation of Trichoderma and Azotobacter in the germination and in the control of Rhizoctonia solani and united with Glomus mosseae in the emission of cotyledon leaves and to obtain quality’s posture of Coffea arabica Lin. Also was used a design of blocks at hazard with there resorts, 15 plants were evaluated by treatment, height, the stems diameter, the pair of leaves and the foliar dry mass, were applied in varying analysis and a half were compared by means of multiple Duncans ranks. with the use of Trichoderma, Azotobacter and Glomus mosseae it obtains postures with high quality, it point up the best result when Trichoderma was used to control the Rhizoctonia solani and combined with Azotobacter to stimulate the germination and with Glomus mosseae in the emission of cotyledon.
127. Y. K. S. da Costa et al., “Effect of Glyphosate and P on the Growth and Nutrition of Coffea Arabica Cultivars and on Weed Control,” Scientific Reports, vol. 11, no. 1, p. 8095, Apr. 2021. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-87541-z. Abstract
     The effect of the phosphorus (P) and glyphosate interactions on the growth and nutrition of Arabica coffee cultivars (Coffea arabica), as well as on the control of Ipomoea grandifolia and Urochloa decumbens, was evaluated. Catuaí-Amarelo/IAC-62 and Catuaí-Vermelho/IAC-144 cultivars did not show glyphosate poisoning, regardless of the soil P content. However, glyphosate reduced the growth of Catuaí-Vermelho/IAC-144. In addition, the soil P content influenced the height, leaf area and dry matter of Catuaí-Amarelo/IAC-62, and the absorption of P and Ca in both cultivars. On the other hand, glyphosate efficiently controlled U. decumbens but not I. grandifolia. Glyphosate effectiveness on I. grandifolia decreased as the soil P content increased. In addition, the soil P content and the glyphosate influenced the P content in I. grandifolia and U. decumbens plants. The soil P content influenced the growth and absorption of other nutrients by coffee plants as well as glyphosate effectiveness on weed control.
128. F. M. Da Matta, J. A. T. do Amaral, and A. B. Rena, “Growth Periodicity in Trees of Coffea Arabica L. in Relation to Nitrogen Supply and Nitrate Reductase Activity,” Field Crops Research, vol. 60, no. 3, pp. 223–229, Feb. 1999. doi: 10.1016/S0378-4290(98)00127-0. Abstract
     Vegetative growth of branches and leaf area gain in field-grown Arabica coffee trees in Viçosa, southeastern Brazil, exhibited active and quiescent phases. Nitrogen supplementation during the cool season did not prevent growth decline, nor did it alter the overall pattern of the tree growth; however, it enabled the plants to grow faster following the quiescent growth phase. Growth was related poorly to both nitrate content and nitrate reductase activity in leaves. In roots, N-fertilization in addition to accounting for greater content of nitrate, amino acids and ammonium was also associated with the maintenance of the nitrate reductase activity, but nitrate reduction was apparently nil in leaves during most of the cool season.
129. F. M. Da Matta, M. Maestri, P. R. Mosquim, and R. S. Barros, “Photosynthesis in Coffee (Coffea Arabica and C. Canephora) as Affected by Winter and Summer Conditions,” Plant Science, vol. 128, no. 1, pp. 43–50, Sep. 1997. doi: 10.1016/S0168-9452(97)00142-8. Abstract
     Photosynthetic and biochemical responses of potted plants of Coffea arabica cv Red Catuaı́ and C. canephora cv Kouillou were examined during winter and summer. There were large decreases in the photosynthetic rates of both cultivars from summer to winter, with more pronounced declines shown by Catuaı́. The photochemical efficiency of photosystem II, as evaluated by the ratio of variable to maximum chlorophyll fluorescence, decreased to a greater extent in Catuaı́ than in Kouillou during winter. This probably was a secondary effect due to the loss of the photosynthetic capacity, which was mostly determined by non-stomatal factors. In response to winter conditions, Kouillou accumulated three times more proline and ascorbate with no changes in the content of malonedialdehyde (MDA). Catuaı́ accumulated 160% more proline and 206% more MDA in winter in comparison to summer values, but there was no significant change in ascorbate levels. The content of chlorophylls and carotenoids did not change in response to natural seasonal acclimation. The leaf starch content in winter was higher by 53% in Catuaı́ than in Kouillou. Photosynthetic rates, as measured by oxygen evolution, were well correlated with starch content in Catuaı́, but not in Kouillou. When winter-grown leaves were darkened for 96 h, their normal starch levels were halved; this was accompanied by the restoration of the photosynthetic rates to levels similar to those found in summer in both cultivars, with a concurrent resumption of the photosystem II efficiency.
130. S. D. V. F. da Rosa, A. M. Carvalho, M. B. McDonald, E. R. V. von Pinho, A. P. Silva, and A. D. Veiga, “The Effect of Storage Conditions on Coffee Seed and Seedling Quality,” Seed Science and Technology, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 151–164, Apr. 2011. doi: 10.15258/sst.2011.39.1.13. Abstract
     Obtaining commercially useful coffee seedlings is hindered by slow, uneven germination and low tolerance to desiccation as well as reduced coffee seed longevity. Coffee seeds have been considered recalcitrant, orthodox and even intermediate with varying results. Current recommendations suggest that coffee seeds can be safely stored between 10-11% f.w.b. at 15°C. However, after drying and storage, coffee seeds lose vigour, and seeds stored after drying cannot be used for producing seedlings. Coffee seedling producers usually sow seeds immediately or lightly dry them after harvest for a short storage period, if necessary. It is highly desirable that seeds are stored safely to optimize coffee seedling production at the appropriate time and season with ideal climatic conditions for planting in the field. The objective of this study was to determine the quality of coffee seedlings produced from seeds stored with high, medium and low moisture levels under hermetic conditions at 10 and 20°C. Seed and seedling quality were assessed before and after nine months storage. Only the germination of seeds harvested at the cherry stage, evaluated before and after the storage at 10°C, was not affected by moisture content, but these seeds lost vigour and did not produce suitable seedlings for planting when stored for nine months. Seedlings produced in the nursery from seeds with 47 and 12% moisture content performed the same as those from greenish-yellow seeds, but they produced a leaf area that was five times smaller, a stem height three times shorter, and had 1.7 times fewer pairs of true leaves than coffee seedlings produced from fresh seeds. Storage at 20°C was not suitable for coffee seeds, especially those at 18% moisture content whose quality declined drastically. These results suggest that coffee seeds do not tolerate desiccation and that their storage behaviour classification should be reviewed.
131. S. D. V. F. da Rosa, M. B. McDonald, A. D. Veiga, F. de L. Vilela, and I. A. Ferreira, “Staging Coffee Seedling Growth: A Rationale for Shortening the Coffee Seed Germination Test,” Seed Science and Technology, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 421–431, Jul. 2010. doi: 10.15258/sst.2010.38.2.15. Abstract
     The species Coffea arabica L. is one of the most important agricultural commodities in Brazil. Despite considerable effort at vegetative propagation of coffee plants, they still are propagated by seedlings produced directly from seeds. An undesired trait of coffee seeds is that they have slow and asynchronous germination, which makes it difficult to obtain seedlings of desirable quality. In addition, this slow and asynchronous germination makes rapid viability and/or vigor evaluations difficult because of the excessive time required to obtain results. The objective of this study was to describe coffee seedling growth developmental stages by documenting morphological changes during germination and post-germination growth. Eight seedling growth stages were described. Description of stages permits a more accurate characterization of coffee seedling development than days after imbibition since environmental factors have a major bearing on the speed and uniformity of seedling growth. In addition, current Rules for Seed Testing in Brazil require 30 days before germination can be assessed. These data demonstrate all essential seedling parts are present on coffee seedlings at stage 6, which occurs at 15 days. Such data suggest that the standard germination test for coffee seeds can be substantially shortened to provide more rapid seed quality assessment.
132. E. A. A. Da Silva, P. E. Toorop, A. A. M. Van Lammeren, and H. W. M. Hilhorst, “ABA Inhibits Embryo Cell Expansion and Early Cell Division Events During Coffee (Coffea Arabica ‘Rubi’) Seed Germination,” Annals of Botany, vol. 102, no. 3, pp. 425–433, Sep. 2008. doi: 10.1093/aob/mcn112. Abstract
     Coffee seed germination represents an interplay between the embryo and the surrounding endosperm. A sequence of events in both parts of the seed determines whether germination will be successful or not. Following previous studies, the aim here was to further characterize the morphology of endosperm degradation and embryo growth with respect to morphology and cell cycle, and the influence of abscisic acid on these processes.Growth of cells in a fixed region of the axis was quantified from light micrographs. Cell cycle events were measured by flow cytometry and by immunocytochemistry, using antibodies against β-tubulin. Aspects of the endosperm were visualized by light and scanning electron microscopy.The embryonic axis cells grew initially by isodiametric expansion. This event coincided with reorientation and increase in abundance of microtubules and with accumulation of β-tubulin. Radicle protrusion was characterized by a shift from isodiametric expansion to elongation of radicle cells and further accumulation of β-tubulin. Early cell division events started prior to radicle protrusion. Abscisic acid decreased the abundance of microtubules and inhibited the growth of the embryo cells, the reorganization of the microtubules, DNA replication in the embryonic axis, the formation of a protuberance and the completion of germination. The endosperm cap cells had smaller and thinner cell walls than the rest of the endosperm. Cells in the endosperm cap displayed compression followed by loss of cell integrity and the appearance of a protuberance prior to radicle protrusion.Coffee seed germination is the result of isodiametric growth of the embryo followed by elongation, at the expense of integrity of endosperm cap cells. The cell cycle, including cell division, is initiated prior to radicle protrusion. ABA inhibits expansion of the embryo, and hence subsequent events, including germination.
133. E. A. A. da Silva, P. E. Toorop, A. C. van Aelst, and H. W. M. Hilhorst, “Abscisic Acid Controls Embryo Growth Potential and Endosperm Cap Weakening during Coffee (Coffea Arabica Cv. Rubi) Seed Germination,” Planta, vol. 220, no. 2, pp. 251–261, Dec. 2004. doi: 10.1007/s00425-004-1344-0. Abstract
     The mechanism and regulation of coffee seed germination were studied in Coffea arabica L. cv. Rubi. The coffee embryo grew inside the endosperm prior to radicle protrusion and abscisic acid (ABA) inhibited the increase in its pressure potential. There were two steps of endosperm cap weakening. An increase in cellulase activity coincided with the first step and an increase in endo-β-mannanase (EBM) activity with the second step. ABA inhibited the second step of endosperm cap weakening, presumably by inhibiting the activities of at least two EBM isoforms and/or, indirectly, by inhibiting the pressure force of the radicle. The increase in the activities of EBM and cellulase coincided with the decrease in the force required to puncture the endosperm and with the appearance of porosity in the cell walls as observed by low-temperature scanning electronic microscopy. Tissue printing showed that EBM activity was spatially regulated in the endosperm. Activity was initiated in the endosperm cap whereas later during germination it could also be detected in the remainder of the endosperm. Tissue printing revealed that ABA inhibited most of the EBM activity in the endosperm cap, but not in the remainder of the endosperm. ABA did not inhibit cellulase activity. There was a transient rise in ABA content in the embryo during imbibition, which was likely to be responsible for slow germination, suggesting that endogenous ABA also may control embryo growth potential and the second step of endosperm cap weakening during coffee seed germination.
134. P. S. O. da Silva et al., “Effects of Calcium Particle Films and Natural Shading on Ecophysiological Parameters of Conilon Coffee,” Scientia Horticulturae, vol. 245, pp. 171–177, Feb. 2019. doi: 10.1016/j.scienta.2018.10.010. Abstract
     Conilon coffee (Coffea canephora Pierre ex A. Froehner) is an important agricultural crop in Brazil due to its high economic value. This plant species is sensitive to the effects of high levels of solar radiation and temperature, which could limit its wide cultivation in the Brazilian Northeast region. However, management practices such as shading could increase the feasibility of its cultivation. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of different shading methods and the use of calcium particle films on the conilon coffee ecophysiological parameters in the coastal flatland the State of Sergipe, Brazil. The field experiment was carried out as randomized block design with four treatments: i) Natural shading (intercropping coffee and banana plants), ii) Artificial shading with 10% w/v CaCO3 particle films; iii) Artificial shading with 20% w/v CaO particle films; and iv) and control (without shading), and four replicates. Measurements were performed 7, 21 and 35 days after film application at 9:00 h and 12:00 h. Individual parameters, gas exchange efficiency, chlorophyll a fluorescence and maintenance of film coverage on leaves were evaluated. Artificial shading with particle films promoted greater physiological stability of the coffee plants during diurnal meteorological oscillations as compared to the control, resulting in higher rates of liquid photosynthesis (A), better control on stomatal conductance (gs) and transpiration (E). Improvement was also observed in the plant water use efficiency (WUE and IWUE) and in the reduction of leaf temperature. Calcium particle films were more efficient in providing protection to the photosystems and improving photochemical efficiency and energy conversion for photophosphorylation than natural shading. However, the results were more pronounced at 21 days after film application and more persistent for treatment with 20% CaO film. Therefore, calcium particle films are useful tools to alleviate coffee plants stress under adverse climate conditions.
135. E. A. A. da Silva, P. E. Toorop, J. Nijsse, J. D. Bewley, and H. W. M. Hilhorst, “Exogenous Gibberellins Inhibit Coffee (Coffea Arabica Cv. Rubi) Seed Germination and Cause Cell Death in the Embryo,” Journal of Experimental Botany, vol. 56, no. 413, pp. 1029–1038, Mar. 2005. doi: 10.1093/jxb/eri096. Abstract
     The mechanism of inhibition of coffee (Coffea arabica cv. Rubi) seed germination by exogenous gibberellins (GAs) and the requirement of germination for endogenous GA were studied. Exogenous GA4+7 inhibited coffee seed germination. The response to GA4+7 showed two sensitivity thresholds: a lower one between 0 and 1 μM and a higher one between 10 and 100 μM. However, radicle protrusion in coffee seed depended on the de novo synthesis of GAs. Endogenous GAs were required for embryo cell elongation and endosperm cap weakening. Incubation of coffee seed in exogenous GA4+7 led to loss of embryo viability and dead cells were observed by low temperature scanning microscopy only when the endosperm was surrounding the embryo. The results described here indicate that the inhibition of germination by exogenous GAs is caused by factors that are released from the endosperm during or after its weakening, causing cell death in the embryo and leading to inhibition of radicle protrusion.
136. E. A. A. da Silva, A. Chalfun Júnior, and L. V. Paiva, “Genes Associated with Coffee (Coffea Arabica) Seed Germination.,” in 21st International Conference on Coffee Science, Montpellier, France, 11-15 September, 2006, 2007, pp. 739–741. https://www.asic-cafe.org/conference/21st-international-scientific-colloquium-coffee/genes-associated-coffee-coffea-arabica.
137. F. da Silva Guerellus Nery and K. & S. K. Christina Zuffellato-Ribas, “ROOTING OF Psychotria Nuda (Cham. & Schltdl.) Wawra (RUBIACEAE) IN THE FOUR SEASONS OF THE YEAR,” Ciência Florestal, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 243–250. doi: 10.5902/1980509813341.
138. K. E. Dada et al., “Biological Effect of Gamma Irradiation on Vegetative Propagation of Coffea Arabica L,” African Journal of Plant Science, vol. 12, no. 6, pp. 122–128, 2018. doi: 10.5897/AJPS2016.1504. Abstract
     Coffee is the second most valuable commodity exported by developing countries, and supports the livelihood of more than 75 million people. There are limitations to preference for established cultivars due to the autogamous nature of the crop thereby making improvements via conventional breeding of many years to produce a new cultivar difficult. Mutation breeding can overcome these obstacles. One of the first steps in mutation breeding is to determine radio-sensitivity so that optimal irradiation treatments can be determined. Three cultivars: Kents, Mundo novo and Geisha were sourced from the coffee germplasm collection at the Mambilla Plateau substation of the institute, Taraba State, Nigeria. The biological effect of the physical was studied in the selected cultivars of Coffea arabica after the rooted seedlings were treated with various doses of Gamma rays: 0, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 Gy. Success takes percentage and seedling vigour were used as measures of radio-sensitivity at 4 weeks after settings (WAS), 8, 12, and 16 WAS. The results showed that genotype of the cultivars and dosage of irradiation significantly influenced response to irradiation treatments (p < 0.05). The effect of the irradiation on treated cultivars was inversely proportional to the emergence of the success takes, plant height, root length, number of roots and number of leaves. The optimal mutation treatment (LD50) of M1V1 cuttings was in the range of 12 Gy in all the treated Arabica varieties an indication to buttress the narrow genetic base with reference to the similarity of their evolutionary trends. This work provides data on dose treatments for mutation induction in coffee, which may be exploited for coffee improvement.
139. F. M. DaMatta, U. F. de Viçosa, and Brazil, “Coffee Tree Growth and Environmental Acclimation,” in Achieving Sustainable Cultivation of Coffee, Burleigh Dodds Science Publishing, 2018. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781351114363-5/coffee-tree-growth-environmental-acclimation-f%C3%A1bio-damatta-universidade-federal-de-vi%C3%A7osa-brazil. Abstract
     Of the approximately 100 species of the genus Coffea, only Coffea arabica L. (Arabica coffee) and C. canephora Pierre ex A. Froehner (Robusta coffee)1 are economically important worldwide, accounting for approximately 99% of the global bean production. Brazil is the world’s largest coffee producer, followed by Vietnam and Colombia. Coffee is the major export product of countries such as Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda and Ethiopia. About 70% of the world crop is grown on holdings smaller than 10 ha, and hence coffee farming is often a family business that provides sustenance for over 25 million people worldwide. On a broader scale, the international coffee trade involves about 500 million people in its management, from cultivation to the final product for consumption.
140. F. M. DaMatta, “Ecophysiological Constraints on the Production of Shaded and Unshaded Coffee: A Review,” Field Crops Research, vol. 86, no. 2, pp. 99–114, Mar. 2004. doi: 10.1016/j.fcr.2003.09.001. Abstract
     The ecophysiological constraints on the production of the arabica and robusta coffee under shading or full sunlight are reviewed. These two species, which account for almost all the world’s production, were originally considered shade-obligatory, although unshaded plantations may out-yield shaded ones. As a rule, the benefits of shading increase as the environment becomes less favorable for coffee cultivation. Biennial production and branch die-back, which are strongly decreased under shading, are discussed. The relationships between gas exchange performance and key environmental factors are emphasized. Ecophysiological aspects of high density plantings are also examined.
141. F. M. DaMatta, C. P. Ronchi, M. Maestri, and R. S. Barros, “Ecophysiology of Coffee Growth and Production,” Brazilian Journal of Plant Physiology, vol. 19, pp. 485–510, Dec. 2007. doi: 10.1590/S1677-04202007000400014. Abstract
     After oil, coffee is the most valuable traded commodity worldwide. In this review we highlighted some aspects of coffee growth and development in addition to focusing our attention on recent advances on the (eco)physiology of production in both Coffea arabica and C. canephora, which together account for 99% of the world coffee bean production. This review is organized into sections dealing with (i) climatic factors and environmental requirements, (ii) root and shoot growth, (iii) blossoming synchronisation, fruiting and cup quality, (iv) competition between vegetative and reproductive growth and branch die-back, (v) photosynthesis and crop yield, (vi) physiological components of crop yield, (vii) shading and agroforestry systems, and (viii) high-density plantings.
142. F. M. DaMatta et al., “In Field-Grown Coffee Trees Source–Sink Manipulation Alters Photosynthetic Rates, Independently of Carbon Metabolism, via Alterations in Stomatal Function,” New Phytologist, vol. 178, no. 2, pp. 348–357, 2008. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2008.02367.x. Abstract
     • Perturbations of the source–sink balances were performed in field-grown coffee (Coffea arabica) trees to investigate the possible role of carbohydrates in feedback regulation of photosynthesis. • Four treatments were applied at the whole-plant level: (i) complete defruiting and maintenance of the full leaf area, (ii) the half crop load and full leaf area, (iii) the full crop load and full leaf area and (iv) the full crop load and half leaf area. Sampling and measurements were performed twice during the phase of dry matter accumulation of fruits. Gas exchange, chlorophyll a fluorescence, carbon isotope labelling and steady-state metabolite measurements were assessed in source leaves. • The average rate of net photosynthetic rate (A) and stomatal conductance (gs) were larger (> 50%), and carbon isotope composition ratio was lower, in trees with a full crop load and half leaf area than in defruited trees, with individuals of the other two treatments showing intermediate values. However, differences in A seem unlikely to have been caused either by photochemical impairments or a direct end-product-mediated feedback down-regulation of photosynthesis. • It is proposed that the decreased A in defruited coffee trees was independent of carbon metabolism and was rather directly related to a lower CO2 availability coupled to lower gs.
143. F. M. DaMatta and J. D. C. Ramalho, “Impacts of Drought and Temperature Stress on Coffee Physiology and Production: A Review,” Brazilian Journal of Plant Physiology, vol. 18, pp. 55–81, Mar. 2006. doi: 10.1590/S1677-04202006000100006. Abstract
     Overall, drought and unfavourable temperatures are the major climatic limitations for coffee production. These limitations are expected to become increasingly important in several coffee growing regions due to the recognized changes in global climate, and also because coffee cultivation has spread towards marginal lands, where water shortage and unfavourable temperatures constitute major constraints to coffee yield. In this review, we examine the impacts of such limitations on the physiology, and consequently on the production of mainly Coffea arabica and C. canephora, which account for about 99 % of the world coffee bean production. The first section deals with climatic factors and the coffee plant’s requirements. The importance of controlling oxidative stress for the expression of drought and cold tolerance abilities is emphasized in the second section. In the third section, we examine the impacts of drought on cell-water relations, stomatal behaviour and water use, photosynthesis and crop yield, carbon and nitrogen metabolism, root growth and characteristics, and on drought tolerance. In the fourth section, the impacts of low positive and high temperatures on coffee physiology are discussed; some insights about effects of negative temperatures are also presented. Finally, the last section deals with shading in harsh environments as a mean of buffering climatic fluctuations, as well as of increasing environmental sustainability in coffee exploitation.
144. F. M. DaMatta, R. A. Loos, E. A. Silva, and M. E. Loureiro, “Limitations to Photosynthesis inCoffea Canephoraas a Result of Nitrogen and Water Availability,” Journal of Plant Physiology, vol. 159, no. 9, pp. 975–981, Jan. 2002. doi: 10.1078/0176-1617-00807. Abstract
     Plants of C. canephora grown in pots under low nitrogen (LN) or high nitrogen (HN) applications were submitted to either cyclic water stress or daily irrigation. Water deficit led to marked decreases in net carbon assimilation rate (A) and, to a lesser extent, in stomatal conductance (gs), regardless of the N treatments. In well-watered plants, A appreciably increased in HN plants relative to LN plants without significant changes in gs. As a whole, changes in internal CO2 concentration predominantly reflected changes in A rather than in gs. Under irrigated conditions, A, but not gs, correlated with leaf N concentration in a curvilinear way. Photosynthetic nitrogen-use efficiency was considerably low, and decreased with increasing leaf N concentration. Limited N, but not water, slightly decreased the maximum photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (PSII). Under continuous irrigation, LN plants had a smaller quantum yield of electron transport (ϕPSII) through slight decreases of photochemical quenching (qp) and capture efficiency of excitation energy by open PSII reaction centres, and increases in Stern-Volmer non-photochemical quenching. Under water-stressed conditions, changes in PSII photochemistry were apparent only in HN plants, with a 25 % decrease in ϕPSII, due mainly to variations in qp. Biochemical constraints, rather than stomatal or photochemical limitations, provoked the decreases in A under limited supply of either N or water.
145. F. M. DaMatta, R. T. Avila, A. A. Cardoso, S. C. V. Martins, and J. C. Ramalho, “Physiological and Agronomic Performance of the Coffee Crop in the Context of Climate Change and Global Warming: A Review,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 66, no. 21, pp. 5264–5274, May 2018. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b04537. Abstract
     Coffee is one of the most important global crops and provides a livelihood to millions of people living in developing countries. Coffee species have been described as being highly sensitive to climate change, as largely deduced from modeling studies based on predictions of rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns. Here, we discuss the physiological responses of the coffee tree in the context of present and ongoing climate changes, including drought, heat, and light stresses, and interactions between these factors. We also summarize recent insights on the physiological and agronomic performance of coffee at elevated atmospheric CO2 concentrations and highlight the key role of CO2 in mitigating the harmful effects of heat stress. Evidence is shown suggesting that warming, per se, may be less harmful to coffee suitability than previously estimated, at least under the conditions of an adequate water supply. Finally, we discuss several mitigation strategies to improve crop performance in a changing world.
146. F. M. DaMatta et al., “Sustained Enhancement of Photosynthesis in Coffee Trees Grown under Free-Air CO2 Enrichment Conditions: Disentangling the Contributions of Stomatal, Mesophyll, and Biochemical Limitations,” Journal of Experimental Botany, vol. 67, no. 1, pp. 341–352, Jan. 2016. doi: 10.1093/jxb/erv463. Abstract
     Coffee (Coffea spp.), a globally traded commodity, is a slow-growing tropical tree species that displays an improved photosynthetic performance when grown under elevated atmospheric CO2 concentrations ([CO2]). To investigate the mechanisms underlying this response, two commercial coffee cultivars (Catuaí and Obatã) were grown using the first free-air CO2 enrichment (FACE) facility in Latin America. Measurements were conducted in two contrasting growth seasons, which were characterized by the high (February) and low (August) sink demand. Elevated [CO2] led to increases in net photosynthetic rates (A) in parallel with decreased photorespiration rates, with no photochemical limitations to A. The stimulation of A by elevated CO2 supply was more prominent in August (56% on average) than in February (40% on average). Overall, the stomatal and mesophyll conductances, as well as the leaf nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations, were unresponsive to the treatments. Photosynthesis was strongly limited by diffusional constraints, particularly at the stomata level, and this pattern was little, if at all, affected by elevated [CO2]. Relative to February, starch pools (but not soluble sugars) increased remarkably (>500%) in August, with no detectable alteration in the maximum carboxylation capacity estimated on a chloroplast [CO2] basis. Upregulation of A by elevated [CO2] took place with no signs of photosynthetic downregulation, even during the period of low sink demand, when acclimation would be expected to be greatest.
147. F. M. DaMatta, E. Rahn, P. Läderach, R. Ghini, and J. C. Ramalho, “Why Could the Coffee Crop Endure Climate Change and Global Warming to a Greater Extent than Previously Estimated?,” Climatic Change, vol. 152, no. 1, pp. 167–178, Jan. 2019. doi: 10.1007/s10584-018-2346-4. Abstract
     Coffee, one of the most heavily globally traded agricultural commodities, has been categorized as a highly sensitive plant species to progressive climatic change. Here, we summarize recent insights on the coffee plant’s physiological performance at elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration [CO2]. We specifically (i) provide new data of crop yields obtained under free-air CO2 enrichment conditions, (ii) discuss predictions on the future of the coffee crop as based on rising temperature and (iii) emphasize the role of [CO2] as a key player for mitigating harmful effects of supra-optimal temperatures on coffee physiology and bean quality. We conclude that the effects of global warming on the climatic suitability of coffee may be lower than previously assumed. We highlight perspectives and priorities for further research to improve our understanding on how the coffee plant will respond to present and progressive climate change.
148. M. M. Daude, T. W. Dos Santos Silva, N. C. Freitas, S. A. Ságio, L. V. Paiva, and H. G. Barreto, “Transcriptional Analysis of WUSCHEL-Related HOMEOBOX (WOX) Genes in Coffea Arabica L.,” Biologia, vol. 75, no. 9, pp. 1483–1495, Sep. 2020. doi: 10.2478/s11756-020-00460-8. Abstract
     Growing coffee faces challenges regarding the development and productivity of plants. To improve coffee tree cultivation and bean productivity and quality, modern techniques of plant biotechnology need to be adopted that allow the development of more productive and resistant varieties. Among these, somatic embryogenesis stands out as a method of great potential for the propagation of coffee plants in vitro. Some genes are directly related to somatic embryogenesis, especially WOX (WUSHEL-related HOMEOBOX) genes, which play a central role in the process. Therefore, the objective of this study was to identify and analyze the expression pattern of WOX genes in arabica coffee, Coffea arabica. In silico analyses identified seven WOX genes in arabica coffee: Coffea arabica WUSHEL-like (CaWUS-like), Coffea arabica WOX1-like (CaWOX1-like), CaWOX3-like, CaWOX4-like, CaWOX5-like, CaWOX9-like and CaWOX11-like. The transcriptional profile of the CaWOX11-like gene suggests that it may be intrinsically related to the embryogenic process and may be used as a molecular marker. In addition, comparisons of the present results with those from the literature indicate that WOX genes are key regulators of somatic embryogenesis in arabica coffee.
149. A. P. Davis, “The Typification and Characterization of the Genus Psychotria L. (Rubiaceae),” Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, vol. 135, pp. 35–42, 2001. doi: 10.1006/bojl.2000.0390. Abstract
     The taxonornic history of Psychotria asiatica L., the type species of the genus Psychotria L., is introduced and discussed in. detail. For the first time, the name I? asiaticu is unambiguously linked with wild populations of Psychotria from south-east China, allowing critical morphological characteristics and geographical distribution of Psychotria sensu stricto to be known. A full description of l? asiatica is given and representative herbarium specimens are cited. The importance and implications of identifying living representatives that match the type species of Psychotria are briefly discussed. One significant finding of this study is that P. asiatica has pyrenes with preformed germination slits (PGSs), the absence of which has been used by some workers to separate Psychotria from other members of the tribe Psychotrieae.
150. J. E. de A. Bojórquez-Quintal et al., “Differential Effects of Aluminum on in Vitro Primary Root Growth, Nutrient Content and Phospholipase C Activity in Coffee Seedlings (Coffea Arabica),” Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry, vol. 134, pp. 39–48, May 2014. doi: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2014.01.018. Abstract
     Coffea arabica is a woody species that grows in acid soils, where aluminum is available and may affect growth and productivity. To determine the effect of aluminum on primary root growth of C. arabica cv. Typica, seedlings were exposed over 30days to different concentrations of AlCl3 (0, 100, 300 and 500μM) in vitro. The aluminum effect on primary root growth was dose-dependent: low aluminum concentrations (100 and 300μM) stimulated primary root growth (6.98±0.15 and 6.45±0.17cm, respectively) compared to the control (0μM; 5.24±0.17cm), while high concentrations (500μM) induced damage to the root tips and inhibition of primary root growth (2.96±0.28cm). Aluminum (100μM) also increased the K and Ca contents around 33% and 35% in the coffee roots. It is possible that aluminum toxicity resides in its association with cell nuclei in the meristematic region of the root. Additionally, after 30days of treatment with aluminum, two different effects could be observed on phospholipase C (PLC) activity. In shoots, aluminum concentrations ≥300μM inhibited more than 50% of PLC activity. In contrast, in roots a contrasting behavior was determined: low (100μM) and toxic concentrations (500μM) increased the activity of PLC (100%). These results suggest the possible involvement of the phosphoinositide signal transduction pathway, with the phospholipase C enzyme participating in the beneficial and toxic effects of aluminum in plants.
151. J. A. S. de Almeida and M. B. Silvarolla, “Induction of Somatic Embryos of Coffea Arabica Genotypes by 6-Benzyladenine,” International Journal of Plant Developmental Biology, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 5–9, 2009. http://www.globalsciencebooks.info/Online/GSBOnline/images/0906/IJPDB_3(1)/IJPDB_3(1)5-9o.pdf. Abstract
     The objective of the present study was to verify the effect of adding 6-benzyladenine (6-BA) on somatic embryogenesis of Coffea arabica genotypes AC1, AC2, AC3 and Mundo Novo cv. ‘IAC 376-4’. Rectangular foliar explants of these genotypes were inoculated into a single semi-solid culture medium consisting of 1⁄2 MS salts supplemented with 10, 15, 20, 30, 40 and 50 M 6-BA, respectively and kept in the dark at 25°C. The treatments were evaluated with respect to the number of sides of the explant showing formation of structures, an estimate of the size of the structure formed by the explant and the total number of somatic embryos (SEs) produced. The formation of small structures (3 mm) on the borders of the explants of AC and ‘Mundo Novo’ was observed and these subsequently developed SEs when cultured in medium supplemented with lower concentrations of 6-BA tested (10, 15, 20 or 30 μM). In addition, SEs were also formed directly on the borders of the explants. Another aspect of the present study is the formation of SEs as a response to 6-BA as the sole growth regulator and their development in a single culture medium, in a single phase. This culture method results in a reduction in time, handling and consumables, thus being more advantageous, in addition to opening perspectives for its use with other C. arabica genotypes.
152. J. A. S. de Almeida, “Observations on Somatic Embryogenesis in Coffea Arabica L.,” in Coffee-Production and Research, D. T. Castanheira, Ed. Universidade Federal de Viçosa: IntechOpen, 2020. Abstract
     Somatic embryogenesis contributes to coffee breeding programs. This is a process of asexual reproduction which is based on the concept of cellular totipotency. Each haploid or somatic cell of the plant tissue has the genetic information necessary to generate a complete and functional plant. The somatic embryogenesis can occur either indirectly or directly. Coffea arabica genotypes may respond to direct, indirect, or both. In this species, the indirect somatic embryogenesis is composed of two phases, the callogenesis and the embryogenesis, while the direct pathway occurs in a single phase, without the callogenesis. In Coffea, in general, the indirect pathway is induced by the auxin and cytokinin, and the direct pathway with cytokinin only. C. arabica genotypes usually respond easily to the indirect route with high production of somatic embryos. But these are inefficient by the direct route because they present low production of embryos and the process occurs for a long time. In this review, emphasis will be given to different events that are part of the somatic embryogenesis of C. arabica occurring indirectly and in the direct pathway as well as factors that may affect its control.
153. F. De Bruyn et al., “Exploring the Impacts of Postharvest Processing on the Microbiota and Metabolite Profiles during Green Coffee Bean Production,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 83, no. 1, pp. e02398–16, Oct. 2016. doi: 10.1128/AEM.02398-16. Abstract
     The postharvest treatment and processing of frsh coffee cherries can impact the quality of the unroasted green coffee beans. In the present case study, freshly harvested Arabica coffee cherries were processed through two different wet and dry methods to monitor differences in the microbial community structure and in substrate and metabolite profiles. The changes were followed throughout the postharvest processing chain, from harvest to drying, by implementing up-to-date techniques, encompassing multiple-step metagenomic DNA extraction, high- throughput sequencing, and multiphasic metabolite target analysis. During wet pro- cessing, a cohort of lactic acid bacteria (i.e., Leuconostoc, Lactococcus, and Lactobacil- lus) was the most commonly identified microbial group, along with enterobacteria and yeasts (Pichia and Starmerella). Several of the metabolites associated with lactic acid bacterial metabolism (e.g., lactic acid, acetic acid, and mannitol) produced in the mucilage were also found in the endosperm. During dry processing, acetic acid bacteria (i.e., Acetobacter and Gluconobacter) were most abundant, along with Pichia and non-Pichia (Candida, Starmerella, and Saccharomycopsis) yeasts. Accumulation of associated metabolites (e.g., gluconic acid and sugar alcohols) took place in the dry- ing outer layers of the coffee cherries. Consequently, both wet and dry processing methods significantly influenced the microbial community structures and hence the composition of the final green coffee beans. This systematic approach to dissecting the coffee ecosystem contributes to a deeper understanding of coffee processing and might constitute a state-of-the-art framework for the further analysis and subse- quent control of this complex biotechnological process.
154. A. R. de Carvalho, M. G. de Carvalho, R. Braz-Filho, and I. J. C. Vieira, “Chapter 7 - Psychotria Genus: Chemical Constituents, Biological Activities, and Synthetic Studies,” in Studies in Natural Products Chemistry, vol. 48, Atta-ur-Rahman, Ed. Elsevier, 2016, pp. 231–261. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-444-63602-7.00007-2. Abstract
     Natural products have been used by humankind for thousands of years in applications such as pigments, flavorings, and drugs. Since antiquity, the use of natural products has been the best or the only alternative adopted by many people worldwide in the treatment of several diseases. In fact, plants are a potential source of bioactive compounds, but most of the world’s biodiversity has not been evaluated for any biological activity. In this context, several studies have been performed regarding the chemical composition and biological properties of various species from different genera such as Psychotria L. (Rubiaceae). This genus is the largest of the Rubiaceae family, comprising about 2000 species, mainly found in tropical and subtropical regions of the globe. Several works have been reported concerning the chemical composition and biological activities of species of this genus. The aim of this overview is to summarize the advances in knowledge on Psychotria species, compiling reports related to chemical composition and biological activities of the genus.
155. A. R. de Carvalho Junior et al., “Antimycobacterial and Nitric Oxide Production Inhibitory Activities of Triterpenes and Alkaloids from Psychotria Nuda (Cham. & Schltdl.) Wawra,” Molecules, vol. 24, no. 6, p. 1026, Jan. 2019. doi: 10.3390/molecules24061026. Abstract
     A phytochemical study of leaves and twigs of Psychotria nuda resulted in 19 compounds, including five indole alkaloids, N,N,N-trimethyltryptamine, lyaloside, strictosamide, strictosidine, and 5α-carboxystrictosidine; two flavonolignans, cinchonain Ia and cinchonain Ib; an iridoid, roseoside; a sugar, lawsofructose; a coumarin, scopoletin; a diterpene, phytol; three triterpenes, pomolic acid, spinosic acid, and rotungenic acid; and five steroids, sitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, β-sitosterol-3-O-β-d-glucoside, and β-stigmasterol-3-O-β-d-glucoside. Some compounds were evaluated for their in vitro activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis and their ability to inhibit NO production by macrophages stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The compounds pomolic acid, spinosic acid, strictosidine, and 5α-carboxystrictosidine displayed antimycobacterial activity with minimum inhibitory concentrations ranging from 7.1 to 19.2 µg/mL. These compounds showed promising inhibitory activity against NO production (IC50 3.22 to 25.5 μg/mL). 5α-carboxystrictosidine did not show cytotoxicity against macrophages RAW264.7 up to a concentration of 100 µg/mL. With the exception of strictosamide, this is the first report of the occurrence of these substances in P. nuda.
156. R. D. De Castro and P. Marraccini, “Cytology, Biochemistry and Molecular Changes during Coffee Fruit Development,” Brazilian Journal of Plant Physiology, vol. 18, pp. 175–199, Mar. 2006. doi: 10.1590/S1677-04202006000100013. Abstract
     In commercial coffee species (Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora), fruit development is a lengthy process, characterized by tissue changes and evolutions. For example, soon after fecundation and up to mid development, the fruit is mainly constituted of the pericarp and perisperm tissue. Thereafter, the perisperm gradually disappears and is progressively replaced by the endosperm (true seed). Initially present in a "liquid" state, the endosperm hardens as it ripens during the maturation phase, as a result of accumulation of storage proteins, sucrose and complex polysaccharides representing the main reserves of the seed. The last step of maturation is characterized by the dehydration of the endosperm and the color change of the pericarp. Important quantitative and qualitative changes accompany fruit growth, highlighting the importance of its study to better understand the final characteristics of coffee beans. Following a description of the coffee fruit tissues, this review presents some data concerning biochemical, enzymatic and gene expression variations observed during the coffee fruit development. The latter will also be analyzed in the light of recent data (electronic expression profiles) arising from the Brazilian Coffee Genome Project.
157. R. D. De Castro, W. T. Estanislau, L. M. de M. Carvalho, and \relax H. W. M. al Hilhorst, “Functional Development and Maturation of Coffee (Coffea Arabica) Fruit and Seeds.,” in ASIC 2004. 20th International Conference on Coffee Science, Bangalore, India, 11-15 October 2004, 2005, pp. 619–635. https://www.asic-cafe.org/conference/20th-international-scientific-colloquium-coffee/functional-development-and-maturation.
158. M. de Feria, E. Jiménez, R. Barbón, A. Capote, M. Chávez, and E. Quiala, “Effect of Dissolved Oxygen Concentration on Differentiation of Somatic Embryos of Coffea Arabica Cv. Catimor 9722,” Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, vol. 72, no. 1, pp. 1–6, Jan. 2003. doi: 10.1023/A:1021202305692. Abstract
     The effect of two different dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations (50 and 80%) on differentiation of somatic embryos (SE) from cell suspensions of coffee (Coffea arabica cv. Catimor 9722) was analyzed. Two bioreactors CMF-100 (CHEMAP AG) designed for the culture of cells, with 2-l glass vessels and a maximum work volume of 1.8 l were used. Each one was equipped with a gas blending unit (air, O2, N2, CO2) for the control of DO concentration. The inoculation density of embryogenic cells was 1.0 gram of fresh weight per liter (g FW l−1). The number of somatic embryos was greater (71 072 SE l−1) with 80% DO, but the major proportion were globular and heart shaped SE (66 399 SE l−1) and only 6.6% with regard to total was torpedo shaped SE. However, the 50% DO produced the higher number in the torpedo shaped SE (7389 SE l−1) what represented 20.0% with regard to total. Thus, higher concentrations of DO induced globular and heart shaped SE differentiation, but for production of torpedo shaped SE lower concentrations DO are needed. The somatic embryos obtained in the bioreactor with 50% DO showed similar behavior to the somatic embryos obtained in the rotary shaker. After 8 weeks of culture, 49.2% germination was obtained, which allowed a total of 1725 plantlet to be transferred to conditions ex vitro. After 6 months of culture, 89.2% of conversion was achieved and 1539 plants obtained were transferred to field conditions.
159. L. E. de Oliveira Aparecido, G. de Souza Rolim, J. R. da S. C. De, C. T. S. Costa, and P. S. de Souza, “Machine Learning Algorithms for Forecasting the Incidence of Coffea Arabica Pests and Diseases,” International journal of biometeorology, vol. 64, no. 4, pp. 671–688, 2020. doi: 10.1007/s00484-019-01856-1. Abstract
     Disease and pest alert models are able to generate information for agrochemical applications only when needed, reducing costs and environmental impacts. With machine learning algorithms, it is possible to develop models to be used in disease and pest warning systems as a function of the weather in order to improve the efficiency of chemical control of pests of the coffee tree. Thus, we correlated the infection rates with the weather variables and also calibrated and tested machine learning algorithms to predict the incidence of coffee rust, cercospora, coffee miner, and coffee borer. We used weather and field data obtained from coffee plantations in production in the southern regions of the State of Minas Gerais (SOMG) and from the region of the Cerrado Mineiro; these crops did not receive phytosanitary treatments. The algorithms calibrated and tested for prediction were (a) Multiple linear regression (RLM); (b) K Neighbors Regressor (KNN); (c) Random Forest Regressor (RFT), and (d) Artificial Neural Networks (MLP). As dependent variables, we considered the monthly rates of coffee rust, cercospora, coffee miner, and coffee tree borer, and the weather elements were considered as independent (predictor) variables. Pearson correlation analyses were performed considering three different time periods, 1–10 d (from 1 to 10 days before the incidence evaluation), 11–20 d, and 21–30 d, and used to evaluate the unit correlations between the weather variables and infection rates of coffee diseases and pests. The models were calibrated in years of high and low yields, because the biannual variation of harvest yield of coffee beans influences the severity of the diseases. The models were compared by the Willmott’s ‘d’, RMSE (root mean square error), and coefficient of determination (R2) indices. The result of the more accurate algorithm was specialized for the SOMG and Cerrado Mineiro regions using the kriging method. The weather variables that showed significant correlations with coffee rust disease were maximum air temperature, number of days with relative humidity above 80%, and relative humidity. RFT was more accurate in the prediction of coffee rust, cercospora, coffee miner, and coffee borer using weather conditions. In the SOMG, RFT showed a greater accuracy in the predictions for the Cerrado Mineiro in years of high and low yields and for all diseases. In SOMG, the RMSE values ranged from 0.227 to 0.853 for high-yield and 0.147 and 0.827 for low-yield coffee in the coffee borer forecasting.
160. J. C. de Rezende, E. A. Ferreira, M. Pasqual, F. Villa, C. E. Botelho, and S. P. de Carvalho, “Development of Coffea Arabica L. Seedling Obtained from Direct Somatic Embryogenesis,” Coffee Science, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 30–37, 2008. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277053560_Desenvolvimento_de_plantula_de_Coffea_arabica_L_atraves_de_embriogenese_somatica_direta. Abstract
     This work aimed to develop embryos and acclimatize seedlings of Coffea arabica L. cv. Rubi produced by direct somatic embryogenesis. For the development of somatic embryos, were evaluated the effect of sucrose (0; 15; 30; 45 and 60 g.L -1 ) and GA 3 (0; 2.5; 5 and 10 mg.L -1 ). For the development of seedlings, were evaluated the influence of GA 3 (0; 2.5; 5; 10 mg.L-¹) and NAA (0; 0.25; 0.5; 1; 2 mg L-¹). The in vitro experiments were carried out in a growth chamber under light intensity of 32 µMol.m -2 .s -1 , at the temperature of ± 25 1 o C and photoperiod of 16 hours. The parameters evaluated were: number of leaves, length of the aerial part and fresh weight of the seedlings. For the seedling acclimatization process two types of substrates were tested (Plantmax ® and Plantmax ® plus carbonized rice peels (v/v 1:1) and fertilizer with slow-release (Osmocote ® ) (0, 0.5, 1 and 2 g of the fertilizer per cell). The results indicated that 5.81 mg L -1 GA 3 was efficient for the development of coffee somatic embryos and GA 3 (10 mg. L -1 ) in combination with 1mg. L -1 NAA showed efficiency in the development of the seedlings obtained by direct somatic embryogenesis. The best substrate for acclimatization was Plantmax® mixed with carbonized rice peels and 1.68 g per cell of the Osmocote® fertilizer.
161. A. L. de Rezende Maciel, F. A. Rodrigues, M. Pasqual, and C. H. S. de Carvalho, “Acclimatization of Coffee (’Coffea Racemosa’x’Coffea Arabica’) Somaclones Obtained from Temporary Immersion Bioreactor System (RITA),” Australian Journal of Crop Science, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 169–175, 2016. doi: 10.3316/INFORMIT.030798745715401. Abstract
     Brazil is the first producer and second consumer of coffee in the world. Besides, coffee production also provides a million direct and indirect jobs throughout the supply chain. To increase productivity and reduce cost in conventional tissue cultures the temporary immersion of somatic embryos in bioreactor system was employed. During this process acclimatization is the key problem to obtain high-quality seedlings that required high cost. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the efficiency of the acclimatization process of coffee somaclones (Coffea racemosa x Coffea arabica) derived from somatic embryogenesis immersed temporarily in bioreactor system (RITA). Embryos derived from leaves of the ’Siriema 05’ cultivar coffee (Coffea racemosa x Coffea arabica) were used in this experiment. The acclimatization stage of cotyledon embryos was realized in three experiments: Experiment 1 - Different substrates and size of cotyledon embryos; Experiment 2 - Different substrates and Stimulate concentrations; Experiment 3 - Growth of seedlings in different substrates and Osmocote concentrations. A higher conversion percentage of cotyledonary embryos into seedlings were obtained from embryos grown in the Plantmax medium with vermiculite and Plantmax substrate. Moreover, increasing concentrations of Stimulate and Osmocote to a substrate concentration of 10.9 g L-1 produced better quality seedlings.
162. M. D. de Rios and C. S. Grob, “Editors’ Introduction: Ayahuasca Use in Cross-Cultural Perspective,” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 119–121, Jun. 2005. doi: 10.1080/02791072.2005.10399790.
163. K. G. de L. Dias, A. E. F. Neto, P. T. G. Guimarães, T. H. P. Reis, and C. H. C. de Oliveira, “Coffee Yield and Phosphate Nutrition Provided to Plants by Various Phosphorus Sources and Levels,” Ciência e Agrotecnologia, vol. 39, pp. 110–120, 2015-Mar-Apr. doi: 10.1590/S1413-70542015000200002. Abstract
     Phosphorus (P) is considered one of the nutrients that most limits crop yields, especially in soils with an advanced degree of weathering. To evaluate P dynamics and availability in soil resulting from various P doses and sources and to assess the resulting P content of coffee leaves and the final coffee yield, an experiment was conducted in the municipality of Três Pontas, MG, Brazil, in a Red Argisol (Ultisol) area. Fertilization, except for P fertilization, was performed based on the soil analysis results. The annual P doses tested were 0, 75, 150, 300, 450 and 600 kg ha-1 P2O5. Two P sources, simple superphosphate and magnesium thermal phosphate, were evaluated and compared in the study. A physicochemical analysis of the soil and an analysis of leaf dry matter were performed. The available P content in the soil increased as a result of the applications of the two sources. The leaf P levels stabilized at approximately 1.8 and 1.9 g kg-1 for simple superphosphate and magnesium thermal phosphate, respectively, as a result of the application of approximately 300 kg ha-1 P2O5. The coffee responded to P fertilization in the production phase. Averaged over three harvests, the yield per harvest showed gains of 45.3% and 40.3% for simple superphosphate and magnesium thermal phosphate, respectively, with the application of the highest studied dose, 600 kg ha-1 P2O5.
164. D. Djerrab et al., “Photoperiod-Dependent Transcriptional Modifications in Key Metabolic Pathways in Coffea Arabica,” Tree Physiology, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 302–316, Feb. 2021. doi: 10.1093/treephys/tpaa130. Abstract
     Photoperiod length induces in temperate plants major changes in growth rates, morphology and metabolism with, for example, modifications in the partitioning of photosynthates to avoid starvation at the end of long nights. However, this has never been studied for a tropical perennial species adapted to grow in a natural photoperiod close to 12 h/12 h all year long.We grew Coffea arabica L., an understorey perennial evergreen tropical species in its natural 12 h/12 h and in a short 8 h/16 h photoperiod, and we investigated its responses at the physiological, metabolic and transcriptomic levels. The expression pattern of rhythmic genes, including core clock genes, was affected by changes in photoperiod. Overall, we identified 2859 rhythmic genes, of which 89% were also rhythmic in Arabidopsis thaliana L. Under short-days, plant growth was reduced, and leaves were thinner with lower chlorophyll content. In addition, secondary metabolism was also affected with chlorogenic acid and epicatechin levels decreasing, and in agreement, the genes involved in lignin synthesis were overexpressed and those involved in the flavanol pathway were underexpressed.Our results show that the 8 h/16 h photoperiod induces drastic changes in morphology, metabolites and gene expression, and the responses for gene expression are similar to those observed in the temperate annual A. thaliana species.Short photoperiod induces drastic changes in gene expression, metabolites and leaf structure, some of these responses being similar to those observed in A. thaliana.
165. E. Domínguez-Clavé et al., “Ayahuasca: Pharmacology, Neuroscience and Therapeutic Potential,” Brain Research Bulletin, vol. 126, pp. 89–101, Sep. 2016. doi: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.03.002. Abstract
     Ayahuasca is the Quechua name for a tea obtained from the vine Banisteriopsis caapi, and used for ritual purposes by the indigenous populations of the Amazon. The use of a variation of the tea that combines B. caapi with the leaves of the shrub Psychotria viridis has experienced unprecedented expansion worldwide for its psychotropic properties. This preparation contains the psychedelic 5-HT2A receptor agonist N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) from P. viridis, plus β-carboline alkaloids with monoamine-oxidase-inhibiting properties from B. caapi. Acute administration induces a transient modified state of consciousness characterized by introspection, visions, enhanced emotions and recollection of personal memories. A growing body of evidence suggests that ayahuasca may be useful to treat substance use disorders, anxiety and depression. Here we review the pharmacology and neuroscience of ayahuasca, and the potential psychological mechanisms underlying its therapeutic potential. We discuss recent findings indicating that ayahuasca intake increases certain mindfulness facets related to acceptance and to the ability to take a detached view of one’s own thoughts and emotions. Based on the available evidence, we conclude that ayahuasca shows promise as a therapeutic tool by enhancing self-acceptance and allowing safe exposure to emotional events. We postulate that ayahuasca could be of use in the treatment of impulse-related, personality and substance use disorders and also in the handling of trauma. More research is needed to assess the full potential of ayahuasca in the treatment of these disorders.
166. N. K. Donovan, K. A. Foster, and C. A. Parra Salinas, “Analysis of Green Coffee Quality Using Hermetic Bag Storage,” Journal of Stored Products Research, vol. 80, pp. 1–9, Jan. 2019. doi: 10.1016/j.jspr.2018.11.003. Abstract
     Coffee (Coffea arabica L.) value is highly dependent on quality. However, due to high humidity in the Central Andean Ranges of Colombia, where much of the country’s coffee production resides, Farmers must sell their coffee at harvest in order to mitigate quality loss due to the high moisture. Cooperatives are generally forced to store green coffee until enough volume is collected for export, making it crucial to utilize storage solutions that maintain quality over time. This study examines the efficacy of Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS) hermetic bags for storage of green coffee in a simulated small farm setting. PICS bags with the standard three layers (PICS3), PICS bags with two layers (PICS2), and Traditional jute sacks were studied. Quality indicators examined were moisture content, water activity, and cupping score. Analysis of coffee stored at monthly intervals over seven months suggests that both versions of PICS show promise in maintaining moisture content, water activity, and sensory scores. Furthermore, the data suggest that water activity is a better indicator of quality than the currently used moisture content and there is no statistically significant difference in performance between the two PICS treatments.
167. R. G. dos Santos et al., “Autonomic, Neuroendocrine, and Immunological Effects of Ayahuasca: A Comparative Study With d-Amphetamine,” Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, vol. 31, no. 6, p. 717, Dec. 2011. doi: 10.1097/JCP.0b013e31823607f6. Abstract
     Ayahuasca is an Amazonian psychotropic plant tea combining the 5-HT2A agonist N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and monoamine oxidase-inhibiting β-carboline alkaloids that render DMT orally active. The tea, obtained from Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis, has traditionally been used for religious, ritual, and medicinal purposes by the indigenous peoples of the region. More recently, the syncretistic religious use of ayahuasca has expanded to the United States and Europe. Here we conducted a double-blind randomized crossover clinical trial to investigate the physiological impact of ayahuasca in terms of autonomic, neuroendocrine, and immunomodulatory effects. An oral dose of encapsulated freeze-dried ayahuasca (1.0 mg DMT/kg body weight) was compared versus a placebo and versus a positive control (20 mg d-amphetamine) in a group of 10 healthy volunteers. Ayahuasca led to measurable DMT plasma levels and distinct subjective and neurophysiological effects that were absent after amphetamine. Both drugs increased pupillary diameter, with ayahuasca showing milder effects. Prolactin levels were significantly increased by ayahuasca but not by amphetamine, and cortisol was increased by both, with ayahuasca leading to the higher peak values. Ayahuasca and amphetamine induced similar time-dependent modifications in lymphocyte subpopulations. Percent CD4 and CD3 were decreased, whereas natural killer cells were increased. Maximum changes occurred around 2 hours, returning to baseline levels at 24 hours. In conclusion, ayahuasca displayed moderate sympathomimetic effects, significant neuroendocrine stimulation, and a time-dependent modulatory effect on cell-mediated immunity. Future studies on the health impact of long-term ayahuasca consumption should consider the assessment of immunological status in regular users.
168. R. G. dos Santos et al., “Possible Interactions Between 5-HT2A Receptors and the Endocannabinoid System in Humans: Preliminary Evidence of Interactive Effects of Ayahuasca and Endocannabinoids in a Healthy Human Subject,” Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, vol. 38, no. 6, p. 644, Dec. 2018. doi: 10.1097/JCP.0000000000000973. Abstract
     An abstract is unavailable.
169. J. J. Dotson, J. L. Bachman, M. A. Garcia-Garibay, and N. K. Garg, “Discovery and Total Synthesis of a Bis(Cyclotryptamine) Alkaloid Bearing the Elusive Piperidinoindoline Scaffold,” Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. 142, no. 27, pp. 11685–11690, Jul. 2020. doi: 10.1021/jacs.0c04760. Abstract
     Bis(cyclotryptamine) alkaloids have been popular topics of study for many decades. Five possible scaffolds for bis(cyclotryptamine) alkaloids were originally postulated in the 1950s, but only four of these scaffolds have been observed in natural products to date. We describe synthetic access to the elusive fifth scaffold, the piperidinoindoline, through syntheses of compounds now termed “dihydropsychotriadine” and “psychotriadine”. The latter of these compounds was subsequently identified in extracts of the flower Psychotria colorata. Our synthetic route features a stereospecific solid-state photodecarbonylation reaction to introduce the key vicinal quaternary stereocenters.
170. D. Dubberstein et al., “Resilient and Sensitive Key Points of the Photosynthetic Machinery of Coffea Spp. to the Single and Superimposed Exposure to Severe Drought and Heat Stresses,” Frontiers in Plant Science, vol. 11, p. 1049, 2020. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2020.01049. Abstract
     This study unveils the single and combined drought and heat impacts on the photosynthetic performance of Coffea arabica cv. Icatu and C. canephora cv. Conilon Clone 153 (CL153). Well-watered (WW) potted plants were gradually submitted to severe water deficit (SWD) along 20 days under adequate temperature (25/20°C, day/night), and thereafter exposed to a gradual temperature rise up to 42/30°C, followed by a 14-day water and temperature recovery. Single drought affected all gas exchanges (including Amax) and most fluorescence parameters in both genotypes. However, Icatu maintained Fv/Fm and RuBisCO activity, and reinforced electron transport rates, carrier contents, and proton gradient regulation (PGR5) and chloroplast NADH dehydrogenase-like (NDH) complex proteins abundance. This suggested negligible non-stomatal limitations of photosynthesis that were accompanied by a triggering of protective cyclic electron transport (CEF) involving both photosystems (PSs). These findings contrasted with declines in RuBisCO and PSs activities, and cytochromes (b559, f, b563) contents in CL153. Remarkable heat tolerance in potential photosynthetic functioning was detected in WW plants of both genotypes (up to 37/28°C or 39/30°C), likely associated with CEF in Icatu. Yet, at 42/30°C the tolerance limit was exceeded. Reduced Amax and increased Ci values reflected non-stomatal limitations of photosynthesis, agreeing with impairments in energy capture (F0 rise), PSII photochemical efficiency, and RuBisCO and Ru5PK activities. In contrast to PSs activities and electron carrier contents, enzyme activities were highly heat sensitive. Until 37/28°C, stresses interaction was largely absent, and drought played the major role in constraining photosynthesis functioning. Harsher conditions (SWD, 42/30°C) exacerbated impairments to PSs, enzymes, and electron carriers, but uncontrolled energy dissipation was mitigated by photoprotective mechanisms. Most parameters recovered fully between 4 and 14 days after stress relief in both genotypes, although some aftereffects persisted in SWD plants. Icatu was more drought tolerant, with WW and SWD plants usually showing a faster and/or greater recovery than CL153. Heat affected both genotypes mostly at 42/30°C, especially in SWD and Icatu plants. Overall, photochemical components were highly tolerant to heat and to stress interaction in contrast to enzymes that deserve special attention by breeding programs to increase coffee sustainability in climate change scenarios.
171. J.-P. Ducos, C. Lambot, and V. Pétiard, “Bioreactors for Coffee Mass Propagation by Somatic Embryogenesis,” International Journal of Plant Developmental Biology, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1–12, 2007. http://www.globalsciencebooks.info/Online/GSBOnline/images/0706/IJPDB_1(1)/IJPDB_1(1)1-12o.pdf. Abstract
     Coffee somatic embryogenesis in liquid medium is a powerful alternative to other vegetative propagation techniques for mass propagation of selected Coffea canephora (Robusta) clones and F1 Coffea arabica hybrids. This review presents the different types of bioreactors used for coffee somatic embryogenesis by Nestlé R&D Centre-Tours and by other scientific teams. Mechanically agitated bioreactors were used for the production of torpedo-shaped embryos. Critical parameters are the inoculation density (0.5 to 1.0 g FW L-1), medium renewing and the initial oxygen transfer rate (KLa: 5 h-1). In this system, Robusta embryo concentrations range between 200,000 to 400,000 L-1 within 2 months. Maturation from the torpedo to the cotyledonary-stage embryos was achieved in various temporary immersion bioreactors (TIB): in 1-L RITA® system (up to 1,000 cotyledonary embryos per system), in 10-L glass bottles (up to 20,000) and in 10-L flexible disposable bags. The latter one, the so-called “Box-in-Bags”, insures a higher light transmittance to the biomass due to its horizontal design. At the end of the maturation phase, the somatic embryos are green and able to photosynthesize: these pregerminated embryos can be directly transplanted to the greenhouse to get fully germinated plantlets. More recently, a temporary root immersion bioreactor (TRI) has been described for the growth of individualized Arabusta plantlets in photoautautrophic conditions, i.e. in sugar-free medium with enriched CO2 and high light intensity. The pros and cons of these different bioreactors will be discussed considering how they can be integrated in a mass propagation process. We present a “state of the art” by describing a pilot scale process for the production of pregerminated Robusta embryos and some examples of diffusion of coffee selected genotypes. These last years, two major trends have been developed for industrial micropropagation: i) bulk-cultivation of small propagules in photomixotrophic conditions (with sugar) followed by their selection and transfer to the greenhouse for their conversion to plant, ii) production of singulated and fully developed plantlets in the laboratory under photoautotrophic conditions. Next development in coffee mass propagation by somatic embryogenesis will probably originate from the combination of these two approaches. The usage of the “micro-environment” method, combined with media releasing CO2, is well adapted for the ex vitro germination of coffee embryos. Particularly, this method can be a relevant alternative to the conventional one, consisting on insufflating CO2 in the culture rooms or in the greenhouses.
172. J. P. Ducos, B. Florin, J. M. Dupuis, and V. Pétiard, “A New Approach for Automation: Sorting and Sowing Dehydrated Somatic Embryos of Daucus and Coffea Using Seed Technologies,” in Liquid Culture Systems for in Vitro Plant Propagation, Springer, 2005, pp. 415–423. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/1-4020-3200-5_32. Abstract
     Somatic embryos of Daucus carota L. and Coffea canephora L. (var. Robusta) were dehydrated under a 43 % relative humidity then placed in the hopper of a precision seeding system used in the transplant industry. The seeder was adjusted to distribute the embryos onto horticultural trays, each one containing 240 cells filled with soil. As a preliminary result, 72 % and 88 % of the individual cells received a single embryo, in Daucus and Coffea respectively. The embryo-to-plantlet conversion rate was not affected either by the vibration of the hopper or by the nozzles. In carrot 66 % of the embryos germinated after the use of the seeding system (62% germination for the control). Sorting methods traditionally used for the seeds (e.g. air column, vibrating table) can also be used. Such an approach, based on desiccation as a key step, has the potential for a complete automation of the large-scale handling and delivery of somatic embryos.
173. J. P. Ducos, G. Labbe, C. Lambot, and V. Pétiard, “Pilot Scale Process for the Production of Pre-Germinated Somatic Embryos of Selected Robusta (Coffea Canephora) Clones,” In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology - Plant, vol. 43, no. 6, pp. 652–659, Dec. 2007. doi: 10.1007/s11627-007-9075-0. Abstract
     The objective was to set up a pilot scale process for robusta (Coffea canephora) industrial propagation by somatic embryogenesis in liquid media. A batch production of pre-germinated embryos was initiated once every 2 mo. in 2003 and 2004, then every mo. in 2005. Each run batch requires 4 to 6 mo. to produce the pre-germinated somatic embryos and consists of three phases: (1) the development of torpedo stage embryos in Erlenmeyer flasks, (2) pre-germination in temporary immersion bioreactors to allow maturation from the torpedo stage to the cotyledonary stage, (3) maintaining the embryos under storage conditions before their shipment to coffee producing countries. Starting from 1 kg of embryogenic calluses, a total of 4.4 million pre-germinated embryos for 17 clones were produced over 3 yr. This embryo number was enough to potentially regenerate 2 million plants, as the global embryo-to-plantlet conversion rate was estimated to 46% after acclimatization and complete germination in the greenhouse. At the end of April 2006, 600,000 somatic seedlings were transferred into plastic bags in nurseries or were already planted in the fields, mainly in Thailand. The current capacity allows the production of 2.5 million embryos per year, equivalent to a potential of about 1.0 million plantlets. The technical package has recently been transferred to National Institutes in Mexico, Thailand, and Vietnam.
174. K. Duhem, N. Le Mercier, and \relax P. Boxus, “Difficulties in the Establishment of Axenic In Vitro Cultures of Field Collected Coffee and Cacao Germplasm,” Acta Horticulturae, no. 225, pp. 67–76, Jun. 1988. doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.1988.225.7. Abstract
     The field practicability of previously described germplasm collecting methods for tropical woody species was tested on 11 Coffea robusta and 8 Theobroma cacao clones grown in Cameroon. Orthotropic shoots of both species were collected each month over a two years period in Cameroon. They were rapidly shipped to the laboratory in Belgium for disinfection and inoculation onto culture media. Bacterial and fungal contamination were respectively associated with nodal and meristem cultures of coffee and with nodal cultures of cocoa. A wide range of sterilants used at various concentrations, alone or in combination and several antibiotics and fungicides as medium additives were tested without success. Moreover, some antibiotics previously considered non-phytotoxic induced explant necrosis. Other attempts to control the severe contaminations by pretreatment in Cameroon of explants with surface sterilants and by inoculation on media containing antimicrobial agents before shipping failed. Partial control of contamination was eventually achieved by pretreatment of clonal material grown in a greenhouse. This last procedure allowed the clonal micropropagation program to start.
175. M. E. Dulloo et al., “Complementary Conservation Strategies for the Genus Coffea: A Case Study of Mascarene Coffea Species,” Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, vol. 45, no. 6, pp. 565–579, 1998. doi: 10.1023/A:1008621028343. Abstract
     No single conservation technique can adequately conserve the full range of genetic diversity of a target species or genepool. To optimize the efficiency of germplasm conservation, a range of conservation techniques needs to be applied simultaneously. In this paper we review the progress made in the application of both in situ and ex situ complementary conservation strategies and techniques to the conservation of the genus Coffea and identify areas where more research work is required. Traditionally, Coffea species have been conserved ex situ as living plants in field genebanks due to their intermediate seed storage behaviour. However, progress made in the field of biotechnology in recent years have made it possible to envisage the use of in vitro, slow growth and cryopreservation for medium- and long-term conservation of Coffea germplasm, respectively. In situ conservation is also an important option for long-term conservation, but there are no genetic reserves specifically set up for conserving Coffea. Protected areas and managed reserves offer the best opportunities for conserving Coffea. A case study for Mascarene Coffea in Mauritius is presented and a strategy for their conservation is discussed.
176. S. Dussert, N. Chabrillange, J.-L. Montillet, J.-P. Agnel, F. Engelmann, and M. Noirot, “Basis of Coffee Seed Sensitivity to Liquid Nitrogen Exposure: Oxidative Stress or Imbibitional Damage?,” Physiologia Plantarum, vol. 119, no. 4, pp. 534–543, 2003. doi: 10.1046/j.1399-3054.2003.00197.x. Abstract
     Two hypotheses, namely the occurrence of post-thaw oxidative stress or imbibitional damage, were tested to explain the high sensitivity of coffee seeds to liquid nitrogen (LN) exposure. Oxidative stress was studied by measuring primary and secondary products of lipid peroxidation in seeds during the desiccation and rehydration periods. The 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) content of seeds remained constant throughout the desiccation step. No significant difference was observed between desiccated seeds and seeds desiccated and exposed to LN for the evolution of their 4-HNE and hydroperoxide contents during rehydration. In both cases, an increase in 4-HNE and hydroperoxide contents of seeds was observed during the first hours of culture under germination conditions, followed by a progressive decrease down to values comparable to those observed in desiccated seeds. The hydroperoxide composition of frozen seeds was not significantly different from that of control seeds. The (S)/(R) enantiomeric ratios of 9- and 13-hydroxy-octadecadienoic acid extracted from rehydrating seeds were chiral, suggesting that they originated from lipoxygenase activity. These results suggest that the high sensitivity of coffee seeds to LN exposure is not directly associated with the occurrence of an oxidative stress during post-thaw rehydration. The effect on seed viability of different rehydration procedures previously identified to reduce membrane imbibitional injury was studied after desiccation and LN exposure. Desiccation tolerance increased with, by increasing order, seed osmoconditioning, pre-heating and pre-humidifying prior to their culture under germination conditions. Among the four combinations of pre-humidification durations (24 or 48 h) and temperatures (25 or 37°C) tested, pre-humidification for 24 h at 37°C gave the highest level of desiccation tolerance. This rehydration procedure also dramatically increased seed viability after LN exposure. Seed desiccation sensitivity modelling in combination with the calculation of the decrease in seed water activity during cooling facilitated the explanation of the beneficial effect of controlled rehydration after desiccation and LN exposure. These results support the hypothesis that imbibitional membrane damage is involved in the sensitivity of coffee seeds to LN exposure.
177. S. Dussert, E. Couturon, F. Engelmann, and T. Joët, “Biologie de la conservation des semences de caféiers : aspects fondamentaux et conséquences pratiques. Une revue,” Cahiers Agricultures, vol. 21, no. 2-3, pp. 106–114 (1), Mar. 2012. doi: 10.1684/agr.2012.0552. Abstract
     Since the early 1990s, the coffee seed has been designated by several international laboratories as the model system for studying the physiology of seeds of the "intermediate" category. In contrast to orthodox seeds, longevity of which increases when they are dehydrated and stored at low temperature, intermediate seeds are only partially tolerant to desiccation and low temperatures. In the narrow ranges of water contents and temperatures which can thus be used, the longevity of intermediate seeds remains very short, which constitutes a major limitation for the conservation of the biodiversity of these species. The development of new analytical chemistry techniques made it possible to demonstrate that the poor longevity of coffee seeds was associated with several types of cellular damage : neutral lipid hydrolysis leading to the accumulation of free fatty acids which destabilize membranes, selective loss of a class of phospholipids, loss and oxidation of the two major hydrophilic antioxidants, ascorbic acid and glutathione. Thanks to the knowledge gained on the processes involved in coffee seed ageing, we propose for the first time in this paper highly accurate technical recommendations for the preparation and the short-term storage of seed lots. Meanwhile, through biophysical approaches including differential scanning calorimetry, the understanding of the mechanisms involved in coffee seed tolerance to ultra-low temperature exposure has significantly progressed. Based on this knowledge, a very effective cryopreservation technique has been developed for coffee seeds, facilitating the long-term conservation of Coffea genetic resources.
178. S. Dussert, N. Chabrillange, F. Engelmann, F. Anthony, and S. Hamon, “Cryopreservation of Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Seeds: Toward a Simplified Protocol for Routine Use in Coffee Genebanks,” in Cryopreservation of Tropical Plant Germplasm, Tsukuba, Japan, 2000, pp. 161–166.
179. S. Dussert, F. Engelmann, J. Louarn, and M. Noirot, “Inheritance of Seed Desiccation Sensitivity in a Coffee Interspecific Cross: Evidence for Polygenic Determinism,” Journal of Experimental Botany, vol. 55, no. 402, pp. 1541–1547, Jul. 2004. doi: 10.1093/jxb/erh174. Abstract
     The genetic determinism of seed desiccation sensitivity was studied using a cross between two coffee species exhibiting a large difference for this trait, Coffea pseudozanguebariae (tolerant) and C. liberica (sensitive). Throughout the whole study, seed desiccation tolerance was quantified both in terms of water content and water activity. Whatever the parameter used, the level of seed desiccation tolerance in F1 hybrids corresponded to that of the mid-parent, thus indicating an additive inheritance of seed desiccation tolerance at the F1 level. A broad variation was observed among hybrids backcrossed to C. liberica (BCs) for seed desiccation tolerance, independent of the parameter used to quantify it. This variation was continuous and BCs showed transgression in the direction of the most desiccation sensitive parent, indicating (i) that desiccation tolerance is a polygenic trait in coffee species, and (ii) that C. pseudozanguebariae does not present the most favourable alleles for all the genes involved in seed desiccation tolerance. No significant difference was observed between the two reciprocal backcrosses, F1×C. liberica and C. liberica×F1, for the level of desiccation tolerance of their seeds, showing the absence of a maternal effect on this trait. There was no significant effect of the number of seeds harvested from each BC on the level of desiccation tolerance of its seeds. Moreover, there was no significant correlation within BCs between seed size, seed viability, and water content before desiccation and desiccation tolerance.
180. S. Dussert et al., “Integrative Analysis of the Late Maturation Programme and Desiccation Tolerance Mechanisms in Intermediate Coffee Seeds,” Journal of Experimental Botany, vol. 69, no. 7, pp. 1583–1597, Mar. 2018. doi: 10.1093/jxb/erx492. Abstract
     The ‘intermediate seed’ category was defined in the early 1990s using coffee (Coffea arabica) as a model. In contrast to orthodox seeds, intermediate seeds cannot survive complete drying, which is a major constraint for seed storage and has implications for both biodiversity conservation and agricultural purposes. However, intermediate seeds are considerably more tolerant to drying than recalcitrant seeds, which are highly sensitive to desiccation. To gain insight into the mechanisms governing such differences, changes in desiccation tolerance (DT), hormone contents, and the transcriptome were analysed in developing coffee seeds. Acquisition of DT coincided with a dramatic transcriptional switch characterised by the repression of primary metabolism, photosynthesis, and respiration, and the up-regulation of genes coding for late-embryogenesis abundant (LEA) proteins, heat-shock proteins (HSPs), and antioxidant enzymes. Analysis of the heat-stable proteome in mature coffee seeds confirmed the accumulation of LEA proteins identified at the transcript level. Transcriptome analysis also suggested a major role for ABA and for the transcription factors CaHSFA9, CaDREB2G, CaANAC029, CaPLATZ, and CaDOG-like in DT acquisition. The ability of CaHSFA9 and CaDREB2G to trigger HSP gene transcription was validated by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of coffee somatic embryos.
181. S. Dussert and F. Engelmann, “New Determinants for Tolerance of Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Seeds to Liquid Nitrogen Exposure,” Cryoletters, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 169–178, May 2006. https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/cryo/cryo/2006/00000027/00000003/art00004. Abstract
     The present work establishes for the first time that tolerance of coffee seeds to liquid nitrogen (LN) exposure depends on the initial quality of the seedlot and on the rewarming regime employed. Seedlot quality was estimated by the parameters of a quantal response model of desiccation sensitivity developed previously. The percentage of seedlings recovered from cryopreserved seeds was very well correlated with the relative humidity (RH) at which 90% of the initial viability was retained, RH90, as estimated by the model. Whatever the cooling regime employed, rewarming the seeds slowly by exposing them to ambient air was highly detrimental. Slow rewarming-induced viability loss was not due to imbibitional damage since seeds pre-heated at 37°C after slow rewarming to 0°C exhibited a survival percentage lower than seeds thawed rapidly to 0°C before sowing. The optimal hydration status for coffee seed cryopreservation was also re-examined. Drying seeds in 81%RH provided survival percentages considerably higher than those obtained using the drying RH always employed until now, i.e. 78%. A new procedure for slowly precooling the seeds prior to immersion in LN was also established. It consisted of placing the vials containing the seeds in a dry ice-bath for 25 min. Using this procedure in combination with seed drying in 81% RH and rapid rewarming in a 37°C water-bath for 30 min ensured the highest survival percentages ever obtained with coffee seeds, i.e. 89%, a value which was not significantly different from the initial viability percentage.
182. S. Dussert, \relax M. W. Davey, A. Laffargue, S. Doulbeau, R. Swennen, and H. Etienne, “Oxidative Stress, Phospholipid Loss and Lipid Hydrolysis during Drying and Storage of Intermediate Seeds,” Physiologia Plantarum, vol. 127, no. 2, pp. 192–204, 2006. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3054.2006.00666.x. Abstract
     The biochemical and physiological basis of intermediate seed storage behaviour was examined by investigating the effects of equilibrium drying under relative humidities (RHs) of 9–81% and of storage at 20 or 5°C on coffee seed viability and antioxidant, lipid and sugar status. Slow drying induced a significant decrease in the concentrations of the pools of two major antioxidants, glutathione and ascorbate, and an increase in the free fatty acid (FFA) content of seeds, independent of the RH employed. Seeds stored at 81% RH and 20°C lost their viability very rapidly and showed an extensive loss and oxidation of antioxidants, an accumulation of FFA and a selective loss of phospholipids, in particular phosphatidylethanolamine (PE). Interestingly, the changes in PE content were not due to fatty acid de-esterification and the increase in FFA levels resulted from neutral lipid hydrolysis. Decreasing the storage temperature to 5°C considerably slowed both the loss of seed viability and the level of oxidative stress as well as the rates of lipid hydrolysis. No decline in seed viability was observed under storage conditions of 45% RH/20°C. After 1 year under 45% RH/5°C, the loss of seed viability was found to be due to imbibitional damage and could be circumvented by pre-humidifying or pre-heating seeds before sowing.
183. S. Dussert, N. Chabrillange, F. Engelmann, and S. Hamon, “Quantitative Estimation of Seed Desiccation Sensitivity Using a Quantal Response Model: Application to Nine Species of the Genus Coffea L.,” Seed Science Research, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 135–144, Feb. 1999. doi: 10.1017/S096025859900015X. Abstract
     Seed desiccation sensitivity was studied in nine species of the genus Coffeaby measuring seed viability after equilibration over various saturated salt solutions. A quantal response model based on the logistic distribution was developed in order to describe the typical S-shaped patterns observed. The closeness of fit of the desiccation sensitivity model was shown, and the assumption that seed desiccation sensitivity follows a continuous distribution within species was verified. For each species, the water content at which 50% of initial viability was reached, WC50, and a specific parameter describing the intra-specific variability, β, were calculated using a non-linear regression. A simplified water sorption model was developed which allowed easy calculation of water activity and water potential corresponding to WC50 (aw50 and Ψ50) for relative humidities ranging between 10 and 100%. Distribution of WC50and Ψ50 (or aw50) in the genus Coffea was homogeneous within the following intervals: from 0.05 to 0.38 g H2O.g−1dw for WC50 and from −168 to −11 MPa for Ψ50. Different classifications of the coffee species studied as regards to their desiccation sensitivity were obtained depending on whether WC50 or Ψ50was used for classification. The continuum for desiccation sensitivity observed within the nine species studied confirmed that coffee is an appropriate material for studying desiccation sensitivity.
184. S. Dussert, N. Chabrillange, G. Rocquelin, F. Engelmann, M. Lopez, and S. Hamon, “Tolerance of Coffee (Coffea Spp.) Seeds to Ultra-Low Temperature Exposure in Relation to Calorimetric Properties of Tissue Water, Lipid Composition, and Cooling Procedure,” Physiologia Plantarum, vol. 112, no. 4, pp. 495–504, 2001. doi: 10.1034/j.1399-3054.2001.1120406.x. Abstract
     The effect of exposure to ultra-low temperature (liquid nitrogen, LN) on viability of seeds desiccated to various water contents was investigated in 9 coffee species. Three groups of species could be distinguished based on seed survival after LN exposure. In group 1 species, no seedling production could be obtained after LN exposure due to endosperm injury. In group 2 species, recovery was very low or nil after rapid cooling, and only moderate after slow cooling. In group 3 species, very high percentages of seedling development were observed after both rapid and slow cooling. A high interspecific variability for the high moisture freezing limit was observed within the species of groups 2 and 3, since it ranged from 0.14 to 0.26 g H2O g−1 dry weight. A very highly significant correlation was found for those species between the unfreezable water content, as determined from DSC analysis, and the high moisture freezing limit of their seeds. No significant correlation was found between seed lipid content, which varied from 9.8 to 34.6% dry weight, and survival after LN exposure. However, a negative relationship was found between seed unfreezable water content and lipid content. Interspecific differences in fatty acid composition of seed lipids resulted in a high variability in the percentage of unsaturated fatty acids, which ranged from 28.7 to 54.4% among the 9 species studied. For all species studied, a highly significant correlation was found between the percentage of unsaturated fatty acids and the percentage of seedling recovery after rapid or slow cooling.
185. J. A. Dutra Giles et al., “Divergence and Genetic Parameters between Coffea Sp. Genotypes Based in Foliar Morpho-Anatomical Traits,” Scientia Horticulturae, vol. 245, pp. 231–236, Feb. 2019. doi: 10.1016/j.scienta.2018.09.038. Abstract
     Knowing the genetic variability of a population is essential for guiding its preservation and maintenance, in addition to increasing the efficiency of genetic breeding programs. On this basis, the objective of this work was to estimate the genetic parameters, and to study genetic divergence in a coffee plants population constituted by 30 genotypes of Coffea canephora and 4 of C. arabica, by means of univariate and multivariate statistical procedures based on easy to obtain leaf morpho-anatomic characteristics (stomata number; index, density, area index, polar diameter, equatorial diameter, and functionality, as well as leaf area, dry weight, and specific dry weight). The materials were arranged in a randomized-blocks experimental design with four replicates. Significant differences were detected by the F-test (p\,< 0.01) between genotypes of Coffea sp. and for all morphological characters evaluated. This highlighted the heterogeneity of the genetic constitution of the evaluated population, which is quite relevant for the genetic divergence analysis and for breeding purposes, having the potential to identify superior genotypes. The tests of Scott-Knott allowed to detect variability between genotypes for all evaluated leaf morpho-anatomical characteristics, distributing genotypes in up to five groups. The clusters formed by Tocher’s optimization and the UPGMA hierarchical method were concordant, grouping the genotypes in ten and seven groups, respectively, showing similarities in the clusters. Three of the four clustered genotypes of C. arabica constituted an exclusive group for this species, in both methods. The characteristics with higher contribution to such distribution were stomata density (37.1%), number (17.3%), and index (12.1%), which together were responsible for 66.5% of the genetic diversity between the studied genotypes.
186. N. Ebrahim, R. Shibli, I. Makhadmeh, M. Shatnawi, and A. Abu-Ein, “In Vitro Propagation and in Vivo Acclimatization of Three Coffee Cultivars (Coffea Arabica L.) from Yemen,” World Applied Sciences Journal, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 142–150, 2007. https://www.academia.edu/4313737/In_vitro_Propagation_and_In_vivo_Acclimatization_of_Three_Coffee_Cultivars_Coffea_arabica_L_From_Yemen. Abstract
     Micropropagation of Coffea arabica cvs. Oudayni, Hammady and Dawaeiry from Yemen were initiated from seeds. Seeds were surface sterilized and inoculated into media supplemented with different salt strengths and germinated under dark. Seeds germinated on agar medium gave high hypocotyl length, high root length and full cotyledonary leaves expansion after 120 days of culture. Proliferation of these cultivars was experimented on MS media supplemented with different levels (0.0, 2.0, 4.0. 6.0 or 8.0 mg l ) of 1 N6-Benzyladenine (BA), Thidiazuron (TDZ), 6-furfurylaminopurine (Kinetin), 6-(4-hydroxy-3-methyl-2- butenylamino) purine (Zeatin) or 6-( , -Dimethylallylamino) purine (2ip). Highest proliferation for all cultivars was obtained when BA was used at the highest level (8.0 mg l ). Satisfactory proliferation rate in the three 1 cultivars was achieved at 8.0 mg l kinetin and 6.0 mg l TDZ. Zeatin and 2ip were both failed to promote 11 proliferation at any used level. Rooting was experimented on half-strength MS media supplemented with different levels (0.0, 2.0, or 3.0 mg l ) of indole-3- butyric acid (IBA), indole-3- acetic acid (IAA) or 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA). Highest root number and length was achieved at 3.0 mg l 1 IAA or IBA for all cultivars. Rooted plantlets were transferred to 1 peat: 1 perlite mixture and ex vitro acclimatization gave 100% survival.
187. M. T. S. Eira et al., “Coffee Seed Physiology,” Brazilian Journal of Plant Physiology, vol. 18, pp. 149–163, Mar. 2006. doi: 10.1590/S1677-04202006000100011. Abstract
     Considerable advances in our understanding of coffee seed physiology have been made in recent years. However, despite intense research efforts, there are many aspects that remain unclear. This paper gives an overview of the current understanding of the more important features concerning coffee seed physiology, and provides information on recent findings on seed development, germination, storage and longevity.
188. M. T. S. Eira, C. Walters, and L. S. Caldas, “Water Sorption Properties in Coffea Spp. Seeds and Embryos,” Seed Science Research, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 321–330, Apr. 1999. doi: 10.1017/S0960258599000331. Abstract
     The relationships among water content, relative humidity and temperature were documented in both seeds and excised embryos of Coffea spp. using water sorption isotherms. Isotherms were constructed at 5, 15 and 25°C and calculated for lower temperatures. There were no apparent differences in sorption characteristics among whole seeds of several cultivars of C. arabica and among different species of Coffea. Excised embryos of genetically diverse Coffea germplasm also exhibited similar sorption characteristics, though there were substantial differences observed between embryos and whole seeds. The shape of isotherms of coffee seed tissues was intermediate to the reverse sigmoidal shape observed for orthodox seeds and the monotonic shape observed for desiccation intolerant plant tissues. The heats of sorption calculated for RH ≤ 25% for whole seeds of Coffea spp. were similar to orthodox seeds. In contrast, the heats of sorption calculated in the same RH range for excised embryos were intermediate between those of orthodox and recalcitrant embryos. Our observations are consistent with earlier observations that desiccation sensitivity or poor longevity is linked with low levels of water sorption at relative humidities less than 25%. An explanation for this remains elusive.
189. E. Elisabetsky, T. A. Amador, R. R. Albuquerque, D. S. Nunes, and A. do C. Carvalho, “Analgesic Activity of Psychotria Colorata (Willd. Ex R. & S.) Muell. Arg. Alkaloids,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 48, no. 2, pp. 77–83, Oct. 1995. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(95)01287-n. Abstract
     An ethnopharmacological survey showed that home remedies prepared with flowers, fruits and roots of Psychotria colorata (Wild. ex R. & S.) Muell. Arg. (RUBIACEAE) are used by Amazonian caboclos as pain killers. These data led to the evaluation of analgesic activity of extracts of P. colorata, using the formalin, writhing and tail-flick methods. This paper reports the Naloxone reversible opioid-like analgesic activity of alkaloids present in leafs and flowers of P. colorata.
190. E. Elisabetsky, T. A. Amador, M. B. Leal, D. S. Nunes, and L. Verotta, “Merging Ethnoppharmacology with Chemotaxonomy: An Approach to Unveil Bioactive Natural Products. The Case of Psychotria Alkaloids as Potential Analgesics,” Ciênc. cult. (Säo Paulo), pp. 378–85, 1997. https://pesquisa.bvsalud.org/portal/resource/pt/lil-214100.
191. R. H. ELLIS, T. D. HONG, and E. H. ROBERTS, “An Intermediate Category of Seed Storage Behaviour?II. EFFECTS OF PROVENANCE, IMMATURITY, AND IMBIBITION ON DESICCATION-TOLERANCE IN COFFEE,” Journal of Experimental Botany, vol. 42, no. 5, pp. 653–657, May 1991. doi: 10.1093/jxb/42.5.653. Abstract
     Seeds of four cultivars of arabica coffee (Coffea arabica L.) received from three continents survived desiccation to between 7-2% and 11-3% moisture content (wet basis), i.e. to seed water potentials of –90 MPa to –150 MPa, but further desiccation reduced germination (criterion, normal seedling development) in all seed lots. Only a few individuals from four of the lots germinated after being dried to 4–5% moisture content. Differences in desiccation sensitivity were apparent among lots within each cultivar. Desiccation sensitivity in these lots was similar to that observed in seeds of orthodox species which have begun to germinate. Seeds extracted from fruits of intermediate maturity (yellow) were able to tolerate greater desiccation than those from either ripe (red) or immature (green) fruits. Imbibed storage increased desiccation sensitivity. The results are compatible with the view that arabica coffee seeds are unable to tolerate extreme desiccation because germination has been initiated before harvest.
192. F. Englemann, M. E. Dulloo, C. Astorga, D. Dussert, and F. Anthony, Eds., Conserving Coffee Genetic Resources. Renouf Publishing Company Limited, 2007. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Conserving_Coffee_Genetic_Resources/-f6suVVccBoC?hl=en. Abstract
     It is now well recognized that an appropriate conservation strategy for plant species requires a holistic approach which combines ex situ and in situ conservation techniques in a complementary manner. Selection of appropriate methods should be based on a range of criteria, such as biological nature of the species, practicality and feasibility of the method, as well as the cost-effectiveness and security. Complementary conservation strategies are of particular relevance for species with seeds displaying non-orthodox storage behaviour, such as coffee, traditionally stored in field genebanks. This publication describes the application of cryopreservation techniques tested in the CATIE genebank which holds one of the largest field collections of coffee worldwide, mainly Coffea arabica, in the framework of an ex situ complementary conservation strategy. It aims to stimulate research on complementary conservation strategies for other problem crops, as well as on the biotechnological tools required to implement them.
193. M. C. Espíndula, F. J. E. Botelho, A. da C. S. Clemente, A. L. Teixeira, G. Q. F. Alves, and R. M. E. Oliveira, “Quality evaluation of Coffea canephora ‘Apoatã’ seeds for rootstock production,” Coffee Science, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 1–8, May 2018. http://www.coffeescience.ufla.br/index.php/Coffeescience/article/view/1270. Abstract
     Coffea canephora ‘Apoatã’ seeds are used for the formation of rootstocks for grafting of C. arabica seedlings. The quality of seeds and the individualization of used genotypes are prevalent factors for the formation of vigorous rootstocks that will enhance the formation of quality seedlings. The aim of the present study was to characterize and evaluate the seed quality of C. canephora ‘Apoatã’ genotypes for potential use of rootstocks for C. arabica species. Were used seeds of 30 C. canephora ‘Apoatã’ genotypes, obtained from the experimental field of Embrapa Rondônia in Ouro Preto do Oeste, RO, Brazil. The seeds were processed and subjected to germination, first germination count and tetrazolium tests. Moisture, 100- seed mass and chemical composition analyses of seeds were also determined. The mass, physiological quality and chemical composition of C. canephora ‘Apoatã’ seeds vary according to the genotype. The variation of the physiological quality of C. canephora ‘Apoatã’ seeds is not related individually to caffeine, total sugars, ash, ether extract, crude fiber protein and chlorogenic acid. Seed batches of C. canephora ‘Apoatã’ from different genotypes contain seeds of different sizes, being indicated the classification before the processing stage in order to prevent mechanical damages.
194. E. A. Estrella-Parra, J. C. Almanza-Pérez, and F. J. Alarcón-Aguilar, “Ayahuasca: Uses, Phytochemical and Biological Activities,” Natural Products and Bioprospecting, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 251–265, Aug. 2019. doi: 10.1007/s13659-019-0210-5. Abstract
     Ayahuasca (caapi, yajé), is a psychoactive brew from the Amazon Basin region of South America traditionally considered a “master plant.” It is prepared as a decoction from Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis, which it is thought that it stimulates creative thinking and visual creativity. Native healers of the Orinoco and Amazon basins have used traditionally ayahuasca as a healing tool for multiple purposes, particularly to treat psychological disorders in the patients, with some beneficial effects experimentally and clinically validated. Recently, several syncretic religions, as the “União de Vegetal” (UDV) group in Brazil, have been spread around the world. The use of ayahuasca has been popularized by internet and smart-shops, bringing the psychoactive substance to new highs, emerging new “ayahuasqueros.” Ayahuasca has alkaloids as β-carbolines and dimethyltryptamines, which inhibit the monoamine oxidase and active the 5-HT2A (5-hydroxytryptamine) receptor, respectively, resulting in hallucinations in the users. Ayahuasca induces a psychedelic change in the anteroposterior coupling of the electrophysiological brain oscillations in humans. Traditional ayahuasca beverage is generating pharmacological, commercial and spiritual interest among the scientific community, government people, and different populations worldwide. The goal of this article is to report about the uses, chemistry and biological activities of ayahuasca.
195. H. Etienne, F. Anthony, S. Dussert, D. Fernandez, P. Lashermes, and B. Bertrand, “Biotechnological Applications for the Improvement of Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.),” In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology-Plant, vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 129–138, 2002. doi: 10.1079/IVP2001273. Abstract
     The important advances in coffee biotechnological techniques which have been made particularly during the last 10yr could benefit the coffee breeder in practice and open new perspectives for the development of new varieties. The molecular phylogeny of Coffea species has been established using DNA sequence data. The molecular markers have revealed an extremely reduced genetic diversity in Coffea arabica L. in comparison to C. canephora. However, wild accessions collected in the Ethiopian highlands appeared to constitute a valuable gene reservoir. A complete genetic linkage map of C. canephora was reported and additional ones are being constructed, particularly on C. arabica. The integration of Molecular Assisted Selection in coffee breeding promises to drastically increase the efficiency of breeding programs. Economically important genes of the caffeine biosynthetic pathway or genes encoding for seed storage proteins have been isolated. The high performance already achieved in the in vitro propagation process by somatic embryogenesis offers the possibility to mass propagate superior hybrids in different countries of both C. arabica (selected F1 hybrids) and C. canephora (rootstock variety). Pilot productions by somatic embryogenesis currently permit preparation for commercial application. Somaclonal variation was observed. The percentage of the off-types can vary between 3 and 10% depending on the genotype. Seed cryopreservation enables a routine use for long-term conservation of coffee genetic resources. Transgenic plants have been obtained for the C. arabica and C. canephora cultivated species through Agrobacterium-mediated transformation which constitutes the technique now currently used to transfer directly genes in coffee plants.
196. H. Etienne et al., “Coffee Somatic Embryogenesis: How Did Research, Experience Gained and Innovations Promote the Commercial Propagation of Elite Clones From the Two Cultivated Species?,” Frontiers in Plant Science, vol. 9, 2018. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2018.01630. Abstract
     Since the 1990s, somatic embryogenesis (SE) has enabled the propagation of selected varieties, Arabica F1 hybrid and Robusta clones, originating from the two cultivated coffee species, Coffea arabica and C. canephora, respectively. This paper shows how mostly empirical research has led to successful industrial transfers launched in the 2000s in Latin America, Africa and Asia. Coffee SE can be considered as a model for other woody perennial crops for the following reasons: (i) a high biological efficiency has been demonstrated for propagated varieties at all developmental stages, and (ii) somaclonal variation is understood and mastered thanks to intensive research combining molecular markers and field observations. Coffee SE is also a useful model given the strong economic constraints that are specific to this species. In brief, SE faced five difficulties: (i) the high cost of SE derived plants compared to the cost of seedlings of conventional varieties, (ii) the logistic problems involved in reaching small-scale coffee growers, (iii) the need for certification, and (iv) the lack of solvency among small-scale producers. Nursery activities were professionalized by introducing varietal certification, quality control with regard to horticultural problems and somaclonal variation, and sanitary control for Xylella fastidiosa. In addition, different technology transfers were made to ensure worldwide dissemination of improved F1 Arabica hybrids and Robusta clones. Innovations have been decisive for successful scaling-up and reduction of production costs, such as the development of temporary immersion bioreactors for the mass production of pre germinated embryos, their direct sowing on horticultural soil, and their propagation of rejuvenated SE plants by rooted mini-cuttings. Today, SE is a powerful tool that is widely used in coffee for biotechnological applications including propagation and genetic transformation. Basic research has recently started taking advantage of optimized SE protocols. Based on omics methodologies, research aims to decipher the molecular events involved in the key developmental switches of coffee SE. In parallel, a high-throughput screening of active molecules on SE appears to be a promising tool to speed-up the optimization of SE protocols.
197. H. Etienne et al., “Current Applications of Coffee (Coffea Arabica) Somatic Embryogenesis for Industrial Propagation of Elite Heterozygous Materials in Central America and Mexico,” in Proceedings of the IUFROM Working Party, Suwon, Republic of Korea, 2010. https://agritrop.cirad.fr/562986/. Abstract
     Of ail the possible micropropagation techniques, it is widely accepted that vegetative propagation by somatic embryogenesis is by far the most promising for rapid, large-scale dissemination of elite individuals. Yet, to date, examples of somatic embryogenesis processes applied on an industrial scale are very few and far between. There are many complications. They usually involve a major genotypic effect, particularly for obtaining embryogenic tissues, or are related to the quality of regenerated somatic embryos, the incidence of somaclonal variation and, more generally, a lack of reproducibility and efficiency at certain stages of the process, leading to production costs that are prohibitive. Research on coffee somatic embryogenesis began at the end of the 1970s at various institutes, including CIRAD. Between 1995 and 2001, CIRAD moved the technique forward from a research laboratory scale to a technique enabling industrial dissemination of extremely promising Coffea arabica F1 hybrids. Over that period, two technological innovations made technology transfer economically feasible: mass production of somatic embryos in temporary immersion bioreactors and the possibility of sowing them directly in the nursery. At the same time, reassuring data were obtained on the genetic conformity of regenerated plants (somaclonal variation frequency < 3%). In 2002, in partnership with the ECOM group, CIRAD decided to transfer the somatic embryogenesis method on an industrial scale to Central America so that four Arabica hybrid clones, that were selected for agroforestry-based farming systems, could be disseminated throughout that part of the world. This article describes the different stages and the difficulties we had to overcome before successful technology transfer could occur in 2010. . It describes one of the first examples of somatic embryogenesis technology applied on a commercial scale.
198. H. Etienne et al., “Un exemple de transfert de technologie réussi dans le domaine de la micropropagation: la multiplication de Coffea arabica par embryogenèse somatique,” 2012. doi: 10.1684/agr.2012.0553. Abstract
     Of all the possible micropropagation techniques, vegetative propagation by somatic embryogenesis is by far the most promising one for the rapid, large-scale dissemination of elite individuals. Yet, to date, examples of somatic embryogenesis processes applied at an industrial scale are very few and far between. There are many complications. They usually involve a major genotypic effect, particularly for obtaining embryogenic tissues, or are related to the quality of regenerated somatic embryos, the incidence of somaclonal variation and, more generally, a lack of reproducibility and efficiency at certain stages of the process, leading to production costs that are prohibitive. Research on coffee somatic embryogenesis began at the end of the 1970s at various institutes, including Cirad. Between 1995 and 2001, Cirad moved the technique forward from a research laboratory scale to a technique enabling industrial dissemination of extremely promising Coffea arabica F1 hybrids. Over that period, two technological innovations made technology transfer economically feasible : mass production of somatic embryos in temporary immersion bioreactors and the possibility of sowing them directly in the nursery. At the same time, reassuring data were obtained on the genetic conformity of regenerated plants (somaclonal variation frequency < 3%). In 2002, in partnership with the ECOM group, Cirad decided to transfer the somatic embryogenesis method on an industrial scale to Central America so that four Arabica hybrid clones, that were selected for agroforestry- based farming systems could be disseminated throughout that part of the word. This article describes the different stages and the difficulties we had to overcome in coffee tree before successful technology transfer could occur in 2010. It describes one of the first examples of somatic embryogenesis technology applied at a commercial scale.
199. H. Etienne, W. Solano, A. Pereira, B. Bertrand, N. Vasquez, and D. Barry-Etienne, “A Solution for the Utilization of in Vitro Culture for Mass-Diffusion of Coffea Arabica Elite Materials: The Direct Sowing of Somatic Embryos Produced in a Bioreactor.,” in XIX Simposio Latinoamericano de Caficultura. Memoria, San José, Costa Rica, 2-6 Octubre 2000., 2000, pp. 273–283. https://agritrop.cirad.fr/526175/. Abstract
     The effect of germination conditions on the morphology of Coffea arabica L. somatic embryos mass-produced in a one-litre temporary immersion bioreactor (RITA7) was studied with emphasis on direct sowing in soil. Using germinated embryos, direct sowing resulted in a highly successful conversion of embryos into plants. Culture density above 1,600 embryos/11-bioreactor positively affected embryo morphology by causing higher embryonic axis elongation (+4-5mm). At this density, addition of a high sucrose concentration (234 mM), 2 weeks before sowing, promoted an increase in effective plant conversion in soil (78%) and a vigorous vegetative growth of the resulting plants. Using this somatic embryogenesis process, 50 000 selected F1 hybrids were recently difunded in America Central. (Résumé d’auteur)
200. H. Etienne and B. Bertrand, “Somaclonal Variation in Coffea Arabica: Effects of Genotype and Embryogenic Cell Suspension Age on Frequency and Phenotype of Variants,” Tree Physiology, vol. 23, no. 6, pp. 419–426, 2003. doi: 10.1093/treephys/23.6.419. Abstract
     We determined how age of embryogenic cell suspensions affects somaclonal variation in five F1 hybrids of Coffea arabica L. Batches of plants were produced either directly from embryogenic callus, or after 3, 6, 9 and 12 months of embryogenic cell suspension culture. Seven phenotypic variants were characterized. Based on vigor and productivity of the regenerated plants, we classified the variants in order of increasing severity of physiological disorders as: Juvenile leaf color, Giant, Dwarf, Thick leaf (Bullata), Variegata, Angustifolia, and Multi-stem. The Dwarf, Angustifolia and Multi-stem variants were the most frequent among the regenerated plants (1.4, 4.8 and 2.9%, respectively). The frequency (f) of variants increased exponentially with the age (t) of the embryogenic suspension, in accordance with the function f = 0.99e0.267t. For all genotypes, somaclonal variation was low (1.3%) in plants produced from embryogenic callus or 3-month-old cell suspensions and increased in frequency with increasing suspension age (6, 10 and 25% in plants produced from cell suspensions aged 6, 9 and 12 months, respectively). Large differences in somaclonal variation among genotypes were found only in plants produced from 12-month-old cell suspensions. For two genotypes, the oldest suspensions produced a majority of somaclonal variants (80–90%), whereas somaclonal variation ranged between 8 and 18% in the other genotypes. Cell suspension age and genotype also affected the type of variant produced. The severity of somaclonal variations increased with cell suspension age. For all genotypes combined, the Angustifolia variant was the most common. The other somaclonal variations were specific to certain genotypes or distributed randomly among the genotypes.
201. D. Etienne-Barry, B. Bertrand, N. Vasquez, and H. Etienne, “Direct Sowing of Coffea Arabica Somatic Embryos Mass-Produced in a Bioreactor and Regeneration of Plants,” Plant Cell Reports, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 111–117, Dec. 1999. doi: 10.1007/s002990050720. Abstract
     The effect of germination conditions on the morphology of Coffea arabica L. somatic embryos mass-produced in a 1-l temporary immersion bioreactor (RITA®) was studied with emphasis on direct sowing in soil. Using germinated embryos, direct sowing resulted in a highly successful conversion of embryos into plants. A culture density above 1600 embryos per 1-l bioreactor positively affected embryo morphology by causing higher embryonic axis elongation (+4–5 mm). At this density, the addition of a high concentration of sucrose (234 mM) 2 weeks before sowing promoted an increase in effective plant conversion in soil (78%) and a vigorous vegetative growth of the resulting plants. Furthermore, direct sowing reduced handling time to 13% and shelving area requirements to 6.3% of the values obtained by conventional acclimatization of plants developed on gel media.
202. M. F. Pompelli, G. M. Pompelli, A. F. M. de Oliveira, W. C. Antunes, and 1 Plant Physiology Lab, Department of Botany, Federal University of Pernambuco, CCB, Recife, Pernambuco, 50670901, Brazil; “The Effect of Light and Nitrogen Availability on the Caffeine, Theophylline and Allantoin Contents in the Leaves of Coffea Arabica L.,” AIMS Environmental Science, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1–11, 2013. doi: 10.3934/environsci.2013.1.1. Abstract
     Caffeine is the most abundant and important purine alkaloid derived from several important crop, such as coffee, tea, cocoa, guarana, and other plants. In tea and coffee plants, caffeine is predominantly produced in the young buds of leaves and in immature fruits. The effect of light-stimulating caffeine biosynthesis is uncertain, but our results clearly show that light, independent of N-availability, increases caffeine (26%), allantoin (47%), and theophylline (8%) content in plants compared with those grown in a shaded (50% solar irradiation) environment. Caffeine is the major low-molecular-weight nitrogenous compound in coffee plants, and at times, it functions as a chemical defense for new bud leaves. Therefore, the primary question that remains is whether caffeine can serve as a nitrogen source for other metabolic pathways. If so, plants grown under a low nitrogen concentration should promote caffeine degradation, with the consequent use of nitrogen atoms (e.g., in NH3) for the construction of other nitrogen compounds that are used for the plant’s metabolism. Our results provide strong evidence that caffeine is degraded into allantoin at low rates in N-deficient plants but not in N-enriched ones. By contrast, this degradation may represent a significant N-source in N-deficient plants.
203. A. V. Fagundes, \relax S. D. V. F. da Rosa, and F. L. F. Ribeiro, “Acceleration of the Formation of Seedlings of Coffea Arabica L. Cv’ Topaz’ as a Function of the Removal of the Seed Parchment.,” Revista Brasileira de Armazenamento, no. 11, pp. 1–6, 2009.
204. J. I. Fahl, M. L. C. Carelli, J. Vega, and A. C. Magalhães, “Nitrogen and Irradiance Levels Affecting Net Photosynthesis and Growth of Young Coffee Plants (Coffea Arabica L.),” Journal of Horticultural Science, vol. 69, no. 1, pp. 161–169, Jan. 1994. doi: 10.1080/14620316.1994.11515262. Abstract
     Shoot growth attributes, leaf anatomical changes and net photosynthetic rates were determined in young coffee plants fertilized at high and low levels and subjected to shade or full sunlight. High nitrogen supply increased plant height irrespective of the light level imposed during growth, and promoted a larger leaf area in plants of the shade treatment. Specific leaf weight was 15% higher in plants grown in full sunlight than in shaded plants, at both nitrogen levels. The number of leaves developed on the orthotropic stem increased significantly under full irradiance and high nitrogen availability. Leaves were 11% thicker ih unshaded plants than in shaded ones, because of the increased size of the palisade and spongy parenchyma tissues. More thylakoids per granum and more grana per chloroplast were observed in shade-grown plants, mainly in those given high nitrogen treatment. Total nitrogen content expressed on a leaf-area basis was higher in sun plants supplemented with nitrogen, whereas chlorophyll a and b and protochlorophyll contents increased in shade-grown plants. Net photosynthetic rate in high nitrogen plants reached 7.19 µmol CO2 m−2 s−1 in the full irradiance treatment, and 5.46 µmol CO2 m−2 s−1 in shaded plants. Maximum net photosynthetic rates in the low nitrogen plants were 5.28 and 4.90 µmol CO2 m−2 s−1 in sun and shade plants, respectively. Increased photosynthetic light saturation was observed in high irradiance plants (628 µmol m−2 s−1) relative to shade plants (359 µmol m−2 s−1) in the high nitrogen treatment. The same pattern was observed in low nitrogen plants. The apparent quantum yield of shade acclimated plants was 14% higher than in those grown in full sunlight. Our results indicate that coffee may be classified as a facultative shade species, exhibiting features of sun adapted plants coupled with shade acclimation attributes, this fairly high adaptive capacity to shade:sun transition being strongly influenced by the level of nitrogen nutrition given to the plants.
205. F. M. Farias et al., “Strictosidinic Acid, Isolated from Psychotria Myriantha Mull. Arg. (Rubiaceae), Decreases Serotonin Levels in Rat Hippocampus,” Fitoterapia, vol. 83, no. 6, pp. 1138–1143, Sep. 2012. doi: 10.1016/j.fitote.2012.04.013. Abstract
     Psychotria is a complex genus whose neotropical species are known by the presence of glucosidic monoterpene indole alkaloids. These compounds are able to display a large range of effects on the central nervous system, such as anxiolytic, antidepressant, analgesic, and impairment of learning and memory acquisition. The aims of this study were to investigate the effects displayed by strictosidinic acid, isolated from Psychotria myriantha Mull. Arg. (Rubiaceae) leaves, on monoamine levels in rat hippocampus and on monoamine oxidase activity. A significance (p<0.01) of 83.5% reduction in 5-HT levels was observed after intra-hippocampal injection (20μg/μl). After treatment by intraperitoneal route (10mg/kg), a 63.4% reduction in 5-HT levels and a 67.4% reduction in DOPAC values were observed. The results indicate that strictosidinic acid seems to act on 5-HT system in rat hippocampus, possibly inhibiting precursor enzymes of 5-HT biosynthesis. The decrease verified in DOPAC levels suggests a role of strictosidinic acid in the dopaminergic transmission, probably due to an inhibition of monoamine oxidase activity, confirmed by the enzymatic assay, which demonstrated an inhibitory effect on MAO A in rat brain mitochondria.
206. “Import Alert 54-15,” US Food and Drug Administration, DWPE 54-15, 2014. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/cms_ia/importalert_1137.html. Abstract
     DETENTION WITHOUT PHYSICAL EXAMINATION OF DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS AND BULK DIETARY INGREDIENTS THAT ARE OR CONTAIN MITRAGYNA SPECIOSA OR KRATOM
207. “FDA and Kratom,” FDA. FDA, Jul-2023. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/public-health-focus/fda-and-kratom. Abstract
     Kratom is not lawfully marketed in the U.S. as a drug product, a dietary supplement, or a food additive in conventional food.
208. M. dos R. V. Fernandes et al., “Biological Activities of the Fermentation Extract of the Endophytic Fungus Alternaria Alternata Isolated from Coffea Arabica L.,” Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, vol. 45, pp. 677–685, Dec. 2009. doi: 10.1590/S1984-82502009000400010. Abstract
     A total of 22 endophytic fungi isolated from coffee (Coffea arabica L.) were cultivated in vitro and their crude extracts tested. The screening was carried out using the agar diffusion method against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Candida albicans. The most effective isolate was Alternaria alternata, and subsequently, its extract was assayed. The total phenolic content was 3.44 μg GAE/mg of the crude extract. For the antibacterial and antifungal activity assays, minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) and minimum bactericidal and fungicidal concentrations (MBC and MFC) were determined. The ranges of MIC values were 50-100 μg/mL for S. aureus and 400-800 μg/mL for E. coli. The extract did not show activity in the tested concentrations for C. albicans. The fungal crude extract was assayed for antioxidant activities. Its ability to scavenge DPPH radicals and antioxidant activity by β-carotene/linoleic acid system oxidation was not significant. In addition, antitumor activity was studied using the MTT assay. At a dilution of 400 μg/mL, the extract displayed a cytotoxic activity of approximately 50% towards HeLa cells in vitro. The results indicate that endophytic fungi could be a promising source of bioactive compounds and warrant further study.
209. \relax R. G. FERRÃO, \relax P. S. VOLPI, \relax M. A. G. FERRÃO, A. F. A. da FONSECA, and \relax A. C. VERDIN FILHO, “Origin, Geographical Dispersion, Taxonomy and Genetic Diversity of Coffea Canephora.,” in Conilon Coffee, 3rd ed., Incaper, 2019, pp. 87–111. https://biblioteca.incaper.es.gov.br/digital/bitstream/123456789/3540/1/chapter-04-origin-geographical-dispersion-taxonomy-genetic-diversity.pdf. Abstract
     The coffee tree is an Eudicotyledoneae plant, class of Angiosperms, Rubiaceae Family and belonging to the genus Coffea (CARVALHO, 1946; BRIDSON, 1987), which has 124 species cataloged in the literature (DAVIS et al., 2011). Of these, only Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora have significant economic importance. The other species, such as Coffea liberica, Coffea racemosa, Coffea dewevrei, Coffea eugenoides, Coffea congensis, Coffea stenophylla, among others, have fundamental importance in genetic breeding programs. They are used in hybridization and transfer of genes and alleles responsible for desirable agronomic characteristics (mainly related to the drought tolerance and resistance to pests and diseases) for the two species commercially produced (CARVALHO, 1946; KRUG; CARVALHO, 1951). The coffee (Coffea sp.) is from the African continent, being C. arabica from the southwest of Ethiopia, Southeast of Sudan and northern of Kenya, and C. canephora from a wide area that extends from India to Congo, from the west coast to the central region of the continent, predominantly in regions of low altitude and higher temperatures (CONAGIN; MENDES, 1961). Currently, the arabica coffee is grown in many parts of the world: in Central and South America, Africa and East Asia; and the coffee worldwide known as robusta coffee, C. canephora, is grown in West and Central Africa, southeast Asia and in some regions of the Americas, with emphasis for Brazil (ECCARDI; SANDALJ, 2002). This latter species, widely geographic distributed, is adapted to the hot and humid regions, and in low areas of rainforest (CHARRIER; BERTHAUD, 1985). In Brazil, it is grown in regions with lower altitude and higher temperature, with an annual average between 22 o to 26 o C. C. canephora is the second most cultivated species of the genus in the world, representing approximately 38% of production, and Espírito Santo stands as the greatest Brazilian producer of this species, designated in the State as conilon coffee. In this chapter, it discourses on an updated review about the origin, geographical dispersion, taxonomy and genetic diversity of the species C. canephora.
210. I. F. Ferrari et al., “Comparative Ontogenesis of Coffea Arabica L. Somatic Embryos Reveals the Efficiency of Regeneration Modulated by the Explant Source and the Embryogenesis Pathway,” In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology - Plant, Jun. 2021. doi: 10.1007/s11627-021-10200-5. Abstract
     In vitro micropropagation is an important technique for coffee multiplication performed by somatic embryogenesis, which can be indirect, with the formation of calluses, or direct, when embryos are formed directly from explant cells. In the present study, we characterized the ontogenesis of somatic embryos regenerated via indirect and direct somatic embryogenesis in leaf explants from Coffea arabica ‘Mundo Novo’ and assessed the development of these embryos in leaf explants from adult plants maintained ex situ and in vitro. Anatomical analyses showed that leaf explants present structural differences depending on their origin. In the direct pathway, tissue develops more rapidly in explants from in vitro plants than in those from ex situ explants. In both methods, the formation of a pro-embryogenic mass was found to be essential for embryo formation. In the indirect pathway, calluses from ex situ material presented elongated cells and a loose external appearance. Conversely, calluses from in vitro material presented large regions of meristematic cells with a single large nucleus and dense cytoplasm. We propose that indirect somatic embryogenesis in in vitro–grown explants may accelerate genetic breeding in coffee, and it represents the most efficient condition for somatic embryogenesis, producing embryos in less time than the required by ex situ plants (indirect: 260 d in ex situ conditions, 62 d in vitro; direct: 270 d ex situ, 86 d in vitro).
211. B. C. Ferreira, S. F. de Lima, C. A. Simon, M. G. de O. Andrade, J. de Ávila, and R. de C. F. Alvarez, “Effect of Biostimulant and Micronutrient on Emergence, Growth and Quality of Arabica Coffee,” Coffee Science - ISSN 1984-3909, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 324–332, Sep. 2018. http://www.coffeescience.ufla.br/index.php/Coffeescience/article/view/1450. Abstract
     The micronutrients and biostimulant use can promote root, shoot and seedling growth. The aim of this work was evaluated the micronutrients and biostimulant application effects on arabica coffee seedling development. The experimental design was a randomized block in factorial 5 x 3, with four replicates. Five cultivars of arabica coffee (Topázio, Catuaí Amarelo, Catuaí Vermelho 99, Catuaí Vermelho 144 and Catiguá) cultivated in green house, combined with biostimulant (Stimulate®), of micronutrients (Mo+Co) and control. 150 days after sowing the plants was evaluated. The higher seed germination velocity (0.10) was obtained with micronutrients and biostimulant. The higher height of plant, 8.88 cm, was attained with biostimulant on Catuaí Amarelo. Catuaí Amarelo and Vermelho obtained higher number of leaves (4.5) with biostimulant use and the Catuaí Amarelo (4.38) with micronutrients use. In Catuaí Amarelo was attained higher shoot dry mass and leaf area with biostimulant use, reach 1.69 g and 19.55 cm2, respectively. The higher root dry mass values (0.76 g) and Dickson quality index (0.47 and 0.48) was attained with micronutrients use to the Catuaí Amarelo e vermelho cultivars. Seedling development of Catuaí Amarelo was benefited with Stimulate® application and the cultivar Topázio did not get positive development with Stimulate® and micronutrients application.
212. V. F. Ferreira, M. A. Ricaldoni, S. D. V. F. da Rosa, M. A. de Figueiredo, S. V. B. Coelho, and T. B. Fantazzini, “Endo-β-Mannanase Enzyme Activity in the Structures of Coffea Arabica L. Seeds under Different Types of Processing and Drying,” Ciência Rural, vol. 48, Dec. 2018. doi: 10.1590/0103-8478cr20170839. Abstract
     ABSTRACT: Enzymes play a fundamental role in degradation of molecules during seed germination, development, and deterioration. Endo-β-mannanase is one of the main enzymes responsible for hydrolysis of mannans in the endosperm during germination of coffee seeds through its action in hydrolytic degradation of cell walls and in weakening the structures of the endosperm that surround the embryo, allowing radicle emergence. The aim of this study was to determine the activity of the endo-β-mannanase enzyme in the structures of coffee seeds for the purpose of assessing the relationship between this activity and the physiological quality of the seeds under different processing and drying methods. Coffea arabica L. fruit in the cherry maturity stage was subjected to three different types of processing: natural (seeds maintained in the fruit itself), fully washed (fruit pulped mechanically and the seeds demucilaged by fermentation in water), and semi-washed or demucilaged (both fruit pulp and mucilage removed mechanically); and two methods of drying: slow drying (suspended screen) in the shade, and rapid drying in mechanical dryer at 35°C to a moisture content of 11±1%. After processing and drying, the physiological quality of the seeds was evaluated through the germination test, and endo-β-mannanase enzyme activity was quantified. Coffee seeds submitted to natural processing have lower physiological performance, as well as greater deterioration and greater activity of the endo-ß-mannanase enzyme. Removal of mucilage during fully washed and semi-washed processing of coffee seeds reduces the activity of the endo-ß-mannanase enzyme and lowers deterioration, especially after faster drying. The enzyme endo-ß-mannanase is efficient in studying of the effects of processing and drying on coffee seeds, and can be evaluated in whole seeds, endosperms or embryos.
213. B. G. A. Ferreira, K. C. Zuffellato-Ribas, I. Wendling, H. S. Koehler, and C. B. Reissmann, “\textbfPsychotria Nuda (Cham. & Schltdl.) Wawra: ROOTING OF STOCK PLANTS IN DIFFERENT PHENOPHASES AND ENVIRONMENTS,” Ciência Florestal, vol. 24, pp. 367–378, 2014-Apr-Jun. doi: 10.5902/1980509814574. Abstract
     ABSTRACT Psychotria nuda (Cham. & Schltdl.) Wawra (Rubiaceae) is a native species from the Dense Ombrophylous Forest (dense tropical rain forest), typical in the low altitude areas of the forest, with occurrence in the states of Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Paraná and Santa Catarina. Due to the presence of yellow flowers with red receptacle and anise colored fruits, the plant has an ornamental potential, such as a pharmaceutical potential, thanks to the variety of alkaloids that have already been isolated demonstrating structural diversity of its active components. This work aimed to verify the effect on stem cuttings rooting of different collection environments and of different phenophases of Psychotria nuda stock plants at the time of collection, and to verify what is the correlation between variables defined as percentage of rooted cuttings, number of roots per cutting and average length of the three longest roots per each cutting (cm) with permanence of two half leaves and formation of callus. Phenophases are intended as different times of the year in which stock plants presented distinct phenological characteristics. In the two phenophases studied (phenophases 1 and 2) canopy sprouts were collected in Antonina, Paraná state, from two different environments (plain and hillside) of the Dense Ombrophylous Forest (dense tropical rain forest). Cuttings were prepared with 10 to 13 cm length and two halved leaves. After 60 days in a greenhouse, the percentage of cuttings with roots, with callus, alive, dead, the number of roots per cutting and the length of the three longer roots per each rooted cutting were evaluated. The collection environments and the phenophases at the time of collection influenced the percentage of rooting, such that the phenophase 1 and the hillside environment were the conditions that resulted in the best rooting percentage (90%). The permanence of leaves during rooting period helped, in most cases, the formation of adventitious roots. Anticipated formation of callus supported rooting in phenophase 2, while in phenophase 1 the formation of adventitious roots was independent from callus formation.
214. M. A. de Figueiredo, S. D. V. F. da Rosa, M. A. Ricaldoni, C. C. Pereira, S. V. B. Coelho, and L. C. Silva, “Physiological, Biochemical, and Ultrastructural Aspects of Coffea Arabica L. Seeds under Different Cryopreservation Protocols,” Ciência e Agrotecnologia, vol. 45, Mar. 2021. doi: 10.1590/1413-7054202145027020. Abstract
     ABSTRACT Cryopreservation is a technique that may potentially conserve the germplasm of species of the Coffea genus for an indeterminate time. The aim of this study was to evaluate the physiological, biochemical and ultrastructural characteristics of cryopreserved seeds of Coffea arabica L., cultivar Catucaí amarelo IAC 62, which was subjected to different protocols regarding dehydration, precooling, cooling, rewarming and cathode water use. According to each protocol, the seeds were subjected to fast or slow drying to moisture contents of 17 or 20% (wet basis), cooled in different ways, and then immersed in liquid nitrogen for 24 hours. Different rewarming times in a water bath were also used. Physiological, biochemical and ultrastructural analyses were performed on the seeds after the cryopreservation steps. Moisture content at a 17% wb is the key factor for the cryopreservation of Coffea arabica L. seeds, which have better physiological quality and better preserved cell structures. Precooling of coffee seeds before immersion in liquid nitrogen does not provide advantages compared to direct immersion. The rewarming times tested (2, 4, and 6 minutes) and cathode water use did not cause changes in the physiological and biochemical quality or in the cell structures of Coffea arabica L. cryopreserved seeds. The pattern of cell structure observed in all seeds indicates that the damage from cryopreservation is less drastic in the cells of the embryos than in those of the endosperm, with the latter less tolerant to the stresses of dehydration, precooling, and rewarming.
215. L. Filho and O. F. de, “Studies on Mineral Nutrition of the Coffee Plant (Coffea Arabica L. Cv. Catuai Vermelho). LXIV. Remobilization and Re-Utilization of Nitrogen and Potassium by Normal and Deficient Plants,” Braz. J. Biol., vol. 63, no. 3, pp. 481–490, 2003. doi: 10.1590/s1519-69842003000300014. Abstract
     Remobilization and re-utilization of 15N and 85Rb labelled nitrogen and potassium reserves for new growth and fruit formation was studied under greenhouse conditions using both normal and deficient young coffee plants. It was found that K reserves are used in higher proportion than is stored N by fruits and other organs. The export of N by organs of residence in the normal plants obeyed the following proportions of the total: leaves 47%-58%, branches and flower buds 21%-27%, roots 21%-32%. The corresponding figures in the case of deficient plants were: leaves 49%-65%, branches and flower buds 21%-27%, roots 14%-25%. Re-utilization of K took place in the following proportions in the normal plants: leaves 54%-64%, branches and flower buds 20%-21%, roots 30%-41%. In K deficient plants the figures were: leaves 62%-79%, branches and flower buds 1.2%-4.4%, roots 20%-33%. In tissues formed after the initiation of flowering buds, the demand for N is met by reserves as follows: normal plants: fruits 20.6%-24.8%, leaves 15.6%-19.4%, twigs 19%-20.5%; deficient plants: fruits 43.5%-48.5%, leaves 48.1%-51.9%, twigs 46%-53%. The K needs for new tissues are met in the order: normal plants: fruits 40%-45.8%, leaves 27%-37.6%, twigs 26%-33.1%; deficient plants: fruits 65.7%81.5%, leaves 52.6%-68.4%, twigs 62%-86.1%. Fruits represent the main sink for both N and K. Reutilization of both elements is higher in the case of deficient plants.
216. L. Flores-Bocanegra et al., “The Chemistry of Kratom [Mitragyna Speciosa]: Updated Characterization Data and Methods to Elucidate Indole and Oxindole Alkaloids,” Journal of Natural Products, vol. 83, no. 7, pp. 2165–2177, Jul. 2020. doi: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.0c00257. Abstract
     Two separate commercial products of kratom [Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil. Rubiaceae] were used to generate reference standards of its indole and oxindole alkaloids. While kratom has been studied for over a century, the characterization data in the literature for many of the alkaloids are either incomplete or inconsistent with modern standards. As such, full 1H and 13C NMR spectra, along with HRESIMS and ECD data, are reported for alkaloids 1–19. Of these, four new alkaloids (7, 11, 17, and 18) were characterized using 2D NMR data, and the absolute configurations of 7, 17, and 18 were established by comparison of experimental and calculated ECD spectra. The absolute configuration for the N(4)-oxide (11) was established by comparison of NMR and ECD spectra of its reduced product with those for compound 7. In total, 19 alkaloids were characterized, including the indole alkaloid mitragynine (1) and its diastereoisomers speciociliatine (2), speciogynine (3), and mitraciliatine (4); the indole alkaloid paynantheine (5) and its diastereoisomers isopaynantheine (6) and epiallo-isopaynantheine (7); the N(4)-oxides mitragynine-N(4)-oxide (8), speciociliatine-N(4)-oxide (9), isopaynantheine-N(4)-oxide (10), and epiallo-isopaynantheine-N(4)-oxide (11); the 9-hydroxylated oxindole alkaloids speciofoline (12), isorotundifoleine (13), and isospeciofoleine (14); and the 9-unsubstituted oxindoles corynoxine A (15), corynoxine B (16), 3-epirhynchophylline (17), 3-epicorynoxine B (18), and corynoxeine (19). With the ability to analyze the spectroscopic data of all of these compounds concomitantly, a decision tree was developed to differentiate these kratom alkaloids based on a few key chemical shifts in the 1H and/or 13C NMR spectra.
217. B. Florin et al., “Somatic Embryogenesis and Vegetative Cutting Capacity Are under Distinct Genetic Control in Coffea Canephora Pierre,” Plant cell reports, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 343–357, 2010. doi: 10.1007/s00299-010-0825-9. Abstract
     The purpose of the study was to evaluate the possible genetic effect on vegetative propagation of Coffea canephora. Diversity for somatic embryogenesis (SE) ability was observed not only among two groups of C. canephora Pierre (Congolese and Guinean), but also within these different genetic groups. The results therefore showed that, under given experimental conditions, SE ability is depending on genotype. Furthermore the detection of quantitative trait loci (QTLs) controlling the SE and cutting abilities of C. canephora was performed on a large number of clones including accessions from a core collection, three parental clones and their segregating progenies. On the one hand we detected eight QTLs determining SE. Six positive QTLs for SE ability, whatever the criteria used to quantify this ability, were localized on one single chromosome region of the consensus genetic map. Two negative QTLs for SE ability (frequency of micro calli without somatic embryo) were detected on another linkage group. Deep analysis of the six QTLs detected for SE ability came to the conclusion that they can be assimilated to one single QTL explaining 8.6–12.2% of the observed variation. On the other hand, two QTLs for average length of roots and length of the longest sprouts of cuttings were detected in two linkage groups. These QTLs detected for cutting ability are explaining 12–27% of the observed variation. These observations led to conclude that SE and cutting abilities of C. canephora Pierre appeared to be genetic dependent but through independent mechanisms.
218. A. J. Fonseca, A. F. de Freitas, G. R. Carvalho, M. A. C. Carneiro, D. J. M. Vilela, and L. de O. Fassio, “Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungus on the Initial Growth and Nutrition of Coffea Arabica L. Genotypes,” Ciência e Agrotecnologia, vol. 43, Aug. 2019. doi: 10.1590/1413-7054201943006919. Abstract
     The benefits of mycorrhization occur with the growth of hyphae in colonized roots by promoting an increase of the contact surface which improves the initial growth due to a better absorption of water and nutrients. The objective was to evaluate the effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Rhizophagus clarus inoculation over the initial development and nutritional response of six genotypes of Coffea arabica L. Six genotypes of Coffea arabica L. were used (MGS Aranas, H29-1-8-5, Red Catuai IAC 144, IPR 100, Catigua MG2, Paraíso H 419-1) and with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus - AMF: Rhizophagus clarus and without the application of the fungus. For the production of coffee seedlings, seeds were placed to germinate in plastic trays with sterile sand. After germination, 10 seedlings of each genotype were transferred to 0.120 dm3 polyethylene tubes with substrate. Then the inoculation of five seedlings of each genotype with the AMF R. Clarus was performed. When the seedlings with and without inoculation with the AMF presented six pairs of leaves they were transplanted to 13-liter pots containing soil (Dystrophic red-yellow latosol). The inoculation favored the initial growth of the coffee plants and its intensity varied according to the genotypes. The genotypes H 29-1-8-5, Red Catuai IAC 144 and Catigua MG 2 were the ones that presented higher shoot dry mass, root dry mass, total dry mass and accumulation of P, in relation to MGS aranãs, Paraiso H 419-1 and IPR 100, so they are the most promising to be inoculated with the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus.
219. A. S. N. Formagio et al., “Psychotria Leiocarpa Extract and Vincosamide Reduce Chemically-Induced Inflammation in Mice and Inhibit the Acetylcholinesterase Activity,” Inflammation, vol. 42, no. 5, pp. 1561–1574, Oct. 2019. doi: 10.1007/s10753-019-01018-w. Abstract
     Species from Psychotria are used in folk medicine against inflammatory diseases, respiratory disturbances, and anti-hallucinogenic. In the present study, the compound vincosamide (PL-1) was identified for the first time in methanolic extract of the Psychotria leiocarpa (ME-PL) leaves, as well as the anti-inflammatory and anticholinesteric effects in rodents and molecular docking simulations. The fractionation of the chloroform fraction (CF-PL) through chromatographic methods afforded the known compound PL-1. The anti-inflammatory activity of the ME-PL (30, 100, and 300 mg/kg) and PL-1 (3, 30, and 100 mg/kg) was analyzed using experimental models: paw edema, pleurisy, and mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia induced by carrageenan. The anticholinesterase activity of the ME-PL (30 and 100 mg/kg) and PL-1 (30 mg/kg) was showed by acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory in brain structures. The molecular docking simulations were performed using Molegro Virtual Docker v6.0. Overall, the results indicated that ME-PL and PL-1 demonstrated an anti-edematogenic effect in Cg-induced paw edema, leukocyte migration in the pleurisy model, and significantly reduced mechanical hyperalgesia, cold response to acetone in mice. The samples exhibited maximal inhibition of enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in the frontal cortex. The molecular coupling of PL-1 with the AChE showed significant interactions with the catalytic and peripheral site, corroborating the activity presented in the inhibition assay. The acute administration of ME-PL did not cause signs of toxicity in the treated animals. The results showed that P. leiocarpa inhibited AChE and anti-inflammatory activity, and alkaloid vincosamide could be responsible, at least in part, for the observed effects, supporting the popular use of this genus.
220. A. S. Fortunato et al., “Biochemical and Molecular Characterization of the Antioxidative System of Coffea Sp. under Cold Conditions in Genotypes with Contrasting Tolerance,” Journal of Plant Physiology, vol. 167, no. 5, pp. 333–342, Mar. 2010. doi: 10.1016/j.jplph.2009.10.013. Abstract
     Low positive temperature (chilling) is frequently linked to the promotion of oxidative stress conditions, and is of particular importance in the coffee plant due to its severe impact on growth, development, photosynthesis and production. Nevertheless, some acclimation ability has been reported within the Coffea genus, and is possibly related to oxidative stress control. Using an integrated biochemical and molecular approach, the characterization of the antioxidative system of genotypes with different cold acclimation abilities was performed. Experiments were carried out using 1.5-year-old coffee seedlings of Coffea canephora cv. Apoatã, C. arabica cv. Catuaí, C. dewevrei and 2 hybrids, Icatu (C. arabica×C. canephora) and Piatã (C. dewevrei×C. arabica) subjected to a gradual cold treatment and a recovery period. Icatu showed the greatest ability to control oxidative stress, as reflected by the enhancement of several antioxidative components (Cu,Zn-SOD and APX activities; ascorbate, α-tocopherol and chlorogenic acids (CGAs) contents) and lower reactive oxygen species contents (H2O2 and OH). Gene expression studies show that GRed, DHAR and class III and IV chitinases might also be involved in the cold acclimation ability of Icatu. Catuaí showed intermediate acclimation ability through the reinforcement of some antioxidative molecules, usually to a lesser extent than that observed in Icatu. On the other hand, C. dewevrei showed the poorest response in terms of antioxidant accumulation, and also showed the greatest increase in OH values. The difference in the triggering of antioxidative traits supports the hypothesis of its importance to cold (and photoinhibition) tolerance in Coffea sp. and could provide a useful probe to identify tolerant genotypes.
221. K. L. Fowble and R. A. Musah, “A Validated Method for the Quantification of Mitragynine in Sixteen Commercially Available Kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa) Products,” Forensic Science International, vol. 299, pp. 195–202, Jun. 2019. doi: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2019.04.009. Abstract
     The recent rise in the recreational use of plant-based “legal highs” has prompted the development of methods for the identification of the bulk material, and quantification of their psychoactive components. One of these plants is Mitragyna speciosa, commonly referred to as Kratom. While traditional use of this plant was primarily for medicinal purposes, there has been a rise in its recreational use, and as a self-prescribed medication for opioid withdrawal. Although Kratom contains many alkaloids, mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine are unique psychoactive biomarkers of the species, and are responsible for its psychoactive effects. A rapid validated method for the quantification of mitragynine in Kratom plant materials by direct analysis in real time-high-resolution mass spectrometry (DART-HRMS) is presented. It has a linear range of 5–100 μg mL−1, and a lower limit of quantification of 5 μg mL−1. The protocol was applied to determination of the mitragynine content of 16 commercially available Kratom plant products purchased online. The mitragynine amounts in these materials ranged from 2.76 to 20.05 mg g−1 of dried plant material. The utilization of DART-HRMS affords a mechanism not only for the preliminary identification of bulk plant material as being M. speciosa-derived (with no sample preparation required), but also provides the opportunity to quantify its psychoactive components using the same technique.
222. A. C. R. Fraiz, O. A. O. Tonetti, J. A. Cleiton, E. A. A. da Silva, and M. T. S. Eira, “Changes in Physiological Quality of Coffea Arabica and Coffea Canephora Seeds Submitted to Different Drying Rates.,” in 22nd International Conference on Coffee Science, ASIC 2008, Campinas, SP, Brazil, 14-19 September, 2008, 2009, pp. 911–914. https://www.asic-cafe.org/conference/22nd-international-conference-coffee-science/changes-physiological-quality-coffea.
223. N. Franck and P. Vaast, “Limitation of Coffee Leaf Photosynthesis by Stomatal Conductance and Light Availability under Different Shade Levels,” Trees, vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 761–769, Aug. 2009. doi: 10.1007/s00468-009-0318-z. Abstract
     In agroforestry systems, the effect of shade trees on coffee net photosynthesis (An) has been the object of debates among coffee scientists. In this study, we undertook over 600 coffee An “spot” measurements under four different artificial shade levels (100, 72, 45 and 19% of full solar irradiance) and analyzed limitations to An by low light availability (photon flux density, PFD) and stomatal conductance (gs). These gas exchange measurements were carried out during two consecutive coffee growing seasons in a commercial plantation in the Orosi valley of Costa Rica. Levels of An were related to PFD and gs in order to calculate envelope functions which were used to establish PFD or gs limitations to An. Under the growing conditions of the present trial, mean leaf An remained stable for growth irradiance (GI) as low as 45% of full sun and decreased by ~20% at 19% GI. Limitation to An due to gs was strong in full sun and decreasing with increasing shade levels. On the other hand, limitation due to PFD remained at a similar level for all shade treatments. These different evolutions of limitations of An by PFD and gs in response to shade explain the absence of a decrease in coffee leaf An with a shade level up to 55%. Consequently, these results confirm that Arabica coffee is a shade-adapted plant with leaves that can maintain a high photosynthetic performance under low light availability.
224. C. S. Freedland and R. S. Mansbach, “Behavioral Profile of Constituents in Ayahuasca, an Amazonian Psychoactive Plant Mixture,” Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 183–194, May 1999. doi: 10.1016/S0376-8716(98)00154-9. Abstract
     Ayahuasca is a psychoactive plant mixture typically composed of the β-carboline-rich Banisteriopsis caapi vine and the hallucinogenic plant Psychotria viridis. Ayahuasca has long been used by aboriginal populations for its putative spiritual and medicinal benefits. Although the presumed primary chemical constituents of ayahuasca have been identified, little is known about the basic in vivo pharmacology of the extract. Two principal constituents of ayahuasca, the β-carboline harmine and N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) were selected for detailed study in mice using the Functional Observational Battery (FOB). The B. caapi extract was then examined alone and in combination with DMT. Harmine and the B. caapi extract produced similar effects in the FOB, particularly in the open field. Clonic and tonic motor movements were augmented by DMT administration. Harmine and B. caapi decreased acoustic startle amplitude without significantly affecting prepulse inhibition. DMT appeared to attenuate startle-decreasing effects of harmine and B. caapi, although these effects fell just short of significance. These results suggest that the behavioral effects of B. caapi in mice may be attributed in large part to its principal alkaloid species, harmine, and related β-carbolines in the extract. Hence, the presence of the banisteriopsis vine in the admixture may directly contribute to the unique subjective effects of ayahuasca.
225. M. N. de Freitas, S. D. V. F. da Rosa, A. da C. S. Clemente, and C. C. Pereira, “Relevance of Endo-ß-Mannanase Enzyme in Coffee Seed Deterioration Process.,” African Journal of Agricultural Research, vol. 12, no. 15, pp. 1253–1258, 2017. http://www.alice.cnptia.embrapa.br/handle/doc/1081994. Abstract
     The endo-?-mannanase acts on the hemicellulose fraction of the endosperm cell walls, mainly mannans and galactomannans. This process weakens cell walls and allows radicle protrusion during seed germination, but may also occur during the deterioration process. Thus, the aim of this research was to determine the activity of endo-?-mannanase enzyme in dry coffee seeds and in soaked seeds, evaluating its relationship between physiological qualities. Coffee seeds obtained by different processing methods (natural, fermented and demucilated) and drying (sun, shade and dryer) were used. Seed quality was evaluated by germination and tetrazolium tests, and the endo-?-mannanase enzyme activity was determined in dry seeds and after 10 days of soaking. From the results, it was concluded that there is significant inverse relationship between the physiological quality of coffee seeds and the expression of endo-?-mannanase, and seeds with lower percentages of germination and viability of embryos have a higher activity of the enzyme. After ten days of soaking, coffee seeds had higher expression of endo-?-mannanase as compared to the dry seeds for all treatments of fruit processing and drying.
226. N. C. Freitas, H. G. Barreto, C. N. Fernandes-Brum, R. O. Moreira, A. Chalfun-Junior, and L. V. Paiva, “Validation of Reference Genes for qPCR Analysis of Coffea Arabica L. Somatic Embryogenesis-Related Tissues,” Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture (PCTOC), vol. 128, no. 3, pp. 663–678, 2017. doi: 10.1007/s11240-016-1147-6. Abstract
     Quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) is a sensitive method used to investigate relevant changes in gene expression during somatic embryogenesis. Understanding its regulatory network might be helpful to the process of induction of embryos and facilitate the development of efficient plant regeneration procedures. In this study, a set of 12 genes was selected and their stability was assessed in different tissues of somatic embryogenesis-related cultures of Coffea arabica. Analyses of gene expression stability were performed using the RefFinder tool that integrates the geNorm, NormFinder, BestKeeper and Delta-Ct algorithms. Among the all candidate reference genes studied, APRT/EF1a, UBQ/ACT, ACT/24S, RPL39/24S, PP2A/RPL39, PP2A/AP47, emerged as the most stable for normalization of qPCR analyses of embryogenic cell suspensions, non-embryogenic calli, embryogenic calli, com- bined embryogenic and non-embryogenic calli, somatic embryos and plantlet, respectively. A combination of two genes, 24S and PP2A, was identiied as most suitable ref- erence genes across all samples for the C. arabica tissues studied. The commonly employed reference gene encoding glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) was found to be inappropriate as a reference gene for embryogenic tissues of C. arabica. In addition, Baby boom (BBM) gene expression was investigated to confirm the validity of the selected reference genes, the transcript levels of gene were overestimated when unsuitable reference genes were used for normalization. The results shown herein will permit a more precise and reliable normalization of qPCR in experiments involving somatic embryogenesis of C. arabica.
227. E. Freye, “Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) a Psychedelic,” in Pharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs: A Comprehensive Review on Their Mode of Action, Treatment of Abuse and Intoxication, E. Freye, Ed. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2010, pp. 219–220. doi: 10.1007/978-90-481-2448-0_35. Abstract
     DMT, also known as N,N-dimethyltryptamine, is a naturally-occurring tryptamine and potent psychedelic drug, found not only in many plants, but also in trace amounts in the human body where its natural function is undetermined. Structurally, it is analogous to the neurotransmitter serotonin and other psychedelic tryptamines such as 5-MeO-DMT and 4-HO-DMT (Fig. 16). DMT is created in small amounts by the human body during normal metabolism by the enzyme tryptamine-N-methyltransferase [134]. Many cultures, indigenous and modern, ingest DMT as a psychedelic in extracted or synthesized forms.
228. J. Friedman and G. R. Waller, “Caffeine Hazards and Their Prevention in Germinating Seeds of Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.),” Journal of Chemical Ecology, vol. 9, no. 8, pp. 1099–1106, Aug. 1983. doi: 10.1007/BF00982214. Abstract
     The inhibition of growth of seedlings of coffee (Coffea arabica L.) exposed to 10 m M caffeine was found to occur in the rootlet: mitosis and cell plate formation were also inhibited. Since concentrations of endogenous caffeine in the imbibed seed are 40–60 mM, 4–6 times as high as in the seedlings, we conclude that coffee embryos have specific means of avoiding caffeine autotoxicity. Observations indicate that cell divisions in root tips start only after the latter are pushed away from the caffeine-rich endosperm by elongation of the hypocotyl and maintained through cell elongation. Caffeine is introduced into the embryonic cotyledons mostly after cell division is completed there. Thus, coffee seedlings may avoid autotoxic effects of endogenous caffeine by separation between sites where mitosis is occurring and those where caffeine is stored. This is achieved in root tips by separation is space but in the cotyledons by separation in time. Caffeine is liberated from the tree litter in coffee plantations and eventually will produce autotoxic effects, resulting in some degeneration.
229. P. M. Frischknecht, B. M. Eller, and T. W. Baumann, “Purine Alkaloid Formation and CO2 Gas Exchange in Dependence of Development and of Environmental Factors in Leaves of Coffea Arabica L.,” Planta, vol. 156, no. 4, pp. 295–301, Dec. 1982. doi: 10.1007/BF00397466. Abstract
     In the leaves of Coffea arabica L., purine alkaloid formation was estimated by analyzing the theobromine and caffeine content and by measuring the methylation rate of [2-14C]theobromine to [2-14C]caffeine in short-term experiments (6–24 h). At the same time, growth (in terms of dry weight and area), net photosynthesis (NPS), and dark respiration were determined. During leaf development, which was considered to be terminated when NPS was at a maximum (60–80 μmol g-1 s-1) and dark respiration at a minimum (5–7.5 μmol g-1 s-1), the content of theobromine and the velocity of caffeine formation were both found to decrease by a factor of more than 100. The close correlation between the theobromine content and the methylation rate is suspended when purine alkaloid formation is influenced by factors other than leaf development. Among these factors, temperature is the most effective: the velocity of caffeine biosynthesis is increased by raising the temperature and vice versa. Although the plants were well irrigated, a drastic decrease of NPS in the afternoon was observed under all environmental conditions tested. Light saturation was reached between 170–360 μmol m-2 s-1. The temperature optimum of NPS was shown to be very broad (24–33°C)m provided the adaptation time was sufficiently long.
230. R. Fulthorpe, A. R. Martin, and M. E. Isaac, “Root Endophytes of Coffee (Coffea Arabica): Variation Across Climatic Gradients and Relationships with Functional Traits,” Phytobiomes Journal, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 27–39, Jan. 2020. doi: 10.1094/PBIOMES-04-19-0021-R. Abstract
     The root microbiome of Central American coffee trees was studied from four different sites experiencing different annual temperatures and precipitation levels, sampling from plots grown conventionally and under agroforestry management (with shade trees). Total community DNA was separately extracted from roots from four trees sampled from each site/management pair and analyzed using terminal restriction fragment polymorphism analysis and also next generation sequencing (Illumina) of fungal and bacterial ribosomal amplicons. Community profiles were analyzed for site and management effects and correlations to environmental parameters and tree leaf and root economic traits. Communities of both bacteria and fungi varied with site locations, but were not impacted by management system type. They also both varied strongly with environmental parameters. Fungal communities also showed significant variation that could be attributed to plant leaf and root traits. Pooled DNA samples from each site/management regime were used to generate amplicons for next generation sequencing to determine the dominant members of the coffee root microbiome at these locations. Core bacterial genera included Pantoea, Enterobacter, and Burkholderia, while fungal core communities were dominated by members of Cladosporium, Penicillium, Exidiopsis, Trechispora, and Mycena. The potential ecological function of these microbial associates is discussed.
231. E. Furlani Junior, C. E. M. Barbosa, M. Rotundo, F. da S. Tosta, and D. C. Nogueira, “Development, Formation, Maturity and Germination of Seeds from the Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Cultivars Mundo Novo and Catuaí.,” Cultura Agronômica, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 89–99, 2009. https://ojs.unesp.br/index.php/rculturaagronomica/article/view/2101. Abstract
     In order to evaluate the ideal point of coffee seed harvest (Catuaí and Mundo Novo), to determine the maximum germination potential and the seedling development characteristics (total height of the plants, the number of pairs of branches, the stem diameter and skirt length), to determine the quality of coffee seedlings, an experiment was carried out in the agricultural year 1999/2000, in the experimental area of \hspace0pt\hspace0ptFE/UNESP - Ilha Solteira Campus, located in the municipality of Selvíria- MS. Cultivar Catuaí was, on average, significantly superior to Mundo Novo in increments in total plant height and in number of pairs of branches. The cultivar Catuaí showed itself on average significantly higher than Mundo Novo in increments in total plant height and number of pairs of branches. Catuaí began its maturation at 145 daf (days after flowering), while Mundo Novo began its maturation at 175 daf; and at 235 daf Catuaí presented 55.55% of its fruits in the coquinho stage, while Mundo novo presented 86.25%.
232. S. Gagliardi, A. R. Martin, E. de M. V. Filho, B. Rapidel, and M. E. Isaac, “Intraspecific Leaf Economic Trait Variation Partially Explains Coffee Performance across Agroforestry Management Regimes,” Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, vol. 200, pp. 151–160, Feb. 2015. doi: 10.1016/j.agee.2014.11.014. Abstract
     The leaf economics spectrum (LES) refers to a suite of correlated leaf-level physiological, morphological, and chemical traits that can be used to describe life-history strategy among plant species. Documenting LES trait variation across environmental gradients has been important for understanding natural plant community dynamics in response to environmental change. However few studies have examined how LES traits covary within crops, or how the LES is correlated with farm-level management practices or goals, especially for important tree-crops such as coffee. We analyzed within-species variation in eight leaf traits in 60 Coffea arabica plants, across four management treatments differing in shade-tree species composition, to test (i) if hypothesized LES patterns also describe within-species trait variation, and (ii) if LES traits vary in response to management regimes, or are correlated with reproductive output. Leaf traits varied widely across coffee plants with photosynthetic rates (Amass) and leaf area showing especially high variation. In bivariate and multivariate analyses, coffee leaf traits covaried in patterns consistent with the LES, suggesting shifts between leaf-level resource acquisition and conservation traits among plants may also underpin coffee responses to agroforestry management. The position of a coffee plant along the LES (as described by a principal component analysis score) was best explained by light availability, but did not vary systematically with shade tree composition. LES traits were weakly but significantly related to plant-level reproductive output: coffee plants associated with lower Amass and leaf N values, and higher leaf mass per area were associated with greater reproductive output. In showing that the LES describes resource capture and/or conservation strategies among coffee plants, our study represents a novel adoption of the LES to address applied questions in managed systems. Since within species differences in leaf traits partially explain differences in coffee yield, we also suggest that trait-based research in agroecology can contribute to an applied and comprehensive understanding of crop functional biology, and ultimately, agroecosystem structure and function.
233. C. de M. Gallep, E. Confort, M. T. Braghini, M. P. Maluf, Y. Yan, and F.-A. Popp, “Measurements of Ultra-Weak Delayed Luminescence in Coffee Seeds (Coffea Arabica and C. Canephora) and Their Germination Potential: Some Indications for a Photonic Approach in Seed Viability,” p. 7. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242280722_Ultra-weak_delayed_luminescence_in_coffee_seeds_Coffea_arabica_and_C_canephora_and_their_germination_potential_some_indications_for_a_photonic_approach_in_seed_viability. Abstract
     The delayed luminescence of six groups of coffee seeds were measured and analyzed by the decay behavior and statistics parameters. All groups exhibited high germination rate with normal aging behavior with exception of an unripe group. Possible correlations of viability with the photon counting data are discussed, since all measurements exhibited higher total counting (Σ(x)>1.104) indicating non-classical light storage and emission. The best correlation was observed within the total counting over the entire period of 500 points (25s), analyzed together with the decay behavior quantified by the hyperbolic decay fitting and statistical parameters.
234. C. Gambelunghe, K. Aroni, R. Rossi, L. Moretti, and M. Bacci, “Identification of N,N-Dimethyltryptamine and β-Carbolines in Psychotropic Ayahuasca Beverage,” Biomedical Chromatography, vol. 22, no. 10, pp. 1056–1059, 2008. doi: 10.1002/bmc.1023. Abstract
     Recently many people have shown great interest in traditional indigenous practices and popular medicine, involving the ingestion of natural psychotropic drugs. We received a request to analyze and determine the nature of a dark green liquid with a dark brown plant sediment, which the police had seized at an airport and inside the home of a person belonging to the ‘Santo Daime’ religious movement. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis of the extract identified N,N-dimethyltryptamine, a potent hallucinogen, and the β-carboline alkaloids harmine and harmaline, revealing monoamine oxidase A-inhibiting properties. These substances are typical components of Ayahuasca, a South American psychotropic beverage obtained by boiling the bark of the liana Banisteriopsis caapi together with the leaves of various admixture plants, principally Psychotria viridis. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
235. R. Gamboa-Becerra et al., “Metabolomic Markers for the Early Selection of Coffea Canephora Plants with Desirable Cup Quality Traits,” Metabolites, vol. 9, no. 10, p. 214, 2019. doi: 10.3390/metabo9100214. Abstract
     Genetic improvement of coffee plants represents a great challenge for breeders. Conventional breeding takes a too long time for responding timely to market demands, climatic variations and new biological threads. The correlation of genetic markers with the plant phenotype and final product quality is usually poor. Additionally, the creation and use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are often legally restricted and rejected by customers that demand natural products. Therefore, we developed a non-targeted metabolomics approach to accelerate conventional breeding. Our main idea was to identify highly heritable metabolites in Coffea canephora seedlings, which are linked to coffee cup quality. We employed a maternal half-sibs approach to estimate the metabolites heritability in open-pollinated plants in both leaves and fruits at an early plant development stage. We evaluated the cup quality of roasted beans and correlated highly heritable metabolites with sensory quality traits of the coffee beverage. Our results provide new insights about the heritability of metabolites of C. canephora plants. Furthermore, we found strong correlations between highly heritable metabolites and sensory traits of coffee beverage. We revealed metabolites that serve as predictive metabolite markers at an early development stage of coffee plants. Informed decisions can be made on plants of six months old, compared to 3.5 to 5 years using conventional selection methods. The metabolome-wide association study (MWAS) drastically accelerates the selection of C. canephora plants with desirable characteristics and represents a novel approach for the focused breeding of crops.
236. A. Garcia-Romeu, D. J. Cox, K. E. Smith, K. E. Dunn, and R. R. Griffiths, “Kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa): User Demographics, Use Patterns, and Implications for the Opioid Epidemic,” Drug and alcohol dependence, vol. 208, p. 107849, Mar. 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.107849. Abstract
     Background: Kratom, a Southeast Asian plant with opioid-receptor mediated effects, has emerged as a potential substance of abuse, with limited data on its use and effects. This study characterized kratom user demographics, use patterns, and perceived drug effects. Methods: A cross-sectional, anonymous online survey was conducted between January and December 2017. Results: 2,798 kratom users – mean age 40 (SD=12); predominantly White (90%), female (61%), and located in the US (97%) – completed the survey. Kratom was primarily taken orally in doses of 1-3 grams (49%), with daily use (59%) being most common. Kratom was used for pain (91%), anxiety (67%), and depression (65%), with high ratings of effectiveness. 1,144 (41%) used kratom to stop or reduce prescription or illicit opioid use, citing decreased opioid withdrawal and craving related to kratom use, with 411 reporting >1-year continuous abstinence from opioids attributed to kratom use. Roughly one-third of respondents reported adverse effects of kratom, largely rated as mild in severity and lasting ≤24 hours. Seventeen participants (0.6%) sought treatment for adverse effects. Fifty-six individuals (2%) met DSM-5 criteria for a past-year moderate or severe kratom-related substance use disorder (SUD). When asked how troubled they felt regarding their kratom use, the mean (SD) rating was 3.2 (9.8) on a scale from 0 to 100. Conclusion: Kratom is used among White, middle-aged Americans for symptoms of pain, anxiety, depression, and opioid withdrawal. Although regular use was typical, kratom-related SUD and serious adverse effects were uncommon. Additional research on kratom epidemiology and pharmacology is imperative in light of the present opioid epidemic.
237. C. de Gaspari-Pezzopane, H. P. Medina Filho, and R. Bordignon, “Variabilidade genética do rendimento intrínseco de grãos em germoplasma de Coffea,” Bragantia, vol. 63, no. 1, pp. 39–54, 2004. doi: 10.1590/S0006-87052004000100005. Abstract
     GENETIC VARIABILITY FOR BEAN INTRINSIC OUTTURN IN Coffea GERMPLASM The intrinsic coffee bean outturn, percent weight ratio of two normal flat beans and the respective whole fruit, was studied in six Coffea germplasm groups in order to investigate the genetic variability for this characteristic. It was evaluated in C. arabica a group of five short stature cultivars, another group composed of 22 cultivars and selections yet a third group of 79 items comprising cultivars, botanical varieties and types, mutations and accessions from Ethiopia. In C. canephora it were studied three acessions of var. kouilou and ten of var. robusta. It were investigated also eight other species of the genus Coffea. Considerable genetic variability was detected within C. arabica and C. canephora and among the other species of the genus Coffea. The range of values among the last group was much larger than in any other group investigated. The magnitude of variations and the economic implication of bean intrinsic outturn indicate that this characteristic could be used as an additional selection criterion in improvement programs aiming at the development of high yielding cultivars of C. arabica and C. canephora.
238. A. Gaujac, S. Navickiene, M. I. Collins, S. D. Brandt, and J. B. de Andrade, “Analytical Techniques for the Determination of Tryptamines and β-Carbolines in Plant Matrices and in Psychoactive Beverages Consumed during Religious Ceremonies and Neo-Shamanic Urban Practices,” Drug Testing and Analysis, vol. 4, no. 7-8, pp. 636–648, 2012. doi: 10.1002/dta.1343. Abstract
     The consumption of ayahuasca, a hallucinogenic beverage used by indigenous communities in the Amazon, is increasing worldwide due to the expansion of syncretic religions founded in the north of Brazil in the first half of the twentieth century, such as Santo Daime and União do Vegetal. Another example is the jurema wine, a drink that originated from indigenous cultures of the northeast of Brazil. It is currently used for several religious practices throughout Brazil involving urban neo-shamanic rituals and syncretic Brazilian religions, such as Catimbó and Umbanda. Both plant products contain N,N-dimethyltryptamine which requires co-administration of naturally occurring monoamine oxidase inhibitors, for example β-carboline derivatives, in order to induce its psychoactive effects in humans. This review explores the cultural use of tryptamines and β-carbolines and focuses on the analytical techniques that have been recently applied to the determination of these compounds in ayahuasca, its analogues, and the plants used during the preparation of these beverages. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
239. W. Gebreselas, A. Mohammed, and A. Netsere, “Pre-Sowing Treatment of Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Seeds to Enhance Emergence and Subsequent Growth of Seedlings,” Research Journal of Seed Science, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 218–226, Apr. 2010. doi: 10.3923/rjss.2010.218.226. Abstract
     Nursery experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of removal of parchment and soaking of coffee seeds in pure water for different durations on emergence and early growth of coffee seedlings. A split plot design of three replications was employed with seed types (seeds with parchment and clean coffee) and soaking hour (soaking seeds for 12, 24, 36, 48, 60 and 72 h and control) in pure water were assigned as main and sub-plot, respectively. Emergence of seedlings was significantly (p<0.01) affected by coffee seed type (clean coffee vs. coffee with in parchment) where better emergence response was obtained from clean coffee. Forty five, 75 and 90 days after sowing 18.46, 56.70 and 84.70% emergence was obtained from clean coffee, respectively while only 1.86, 15.40 and 49.41% emergence was obtained in the same period, respectively, from coffee seeds sown in parchment. Better emergence occurred from seeds soaked in water against non-soaked ones 45 and 60 days after sowing. Moreover, leaf area and total dry matter weight differed in response to different soaking hours. The seedling vigor index also showed a statistical difference (p<0.01) between coffee seed types where clean coffee resulted in higher value (313.13) over the parchment coffee (232.48). The same parameter resulted from coffee seeds soaked for 72 h was better (p<0.05) when compared to non-soaked seeds and seeds soaked for less than 72 h. The study revealed removing parchment and soaking coffee seeds in water enhances emergency and subsequent growth of coffee seedlings.
240. F. Georget et al., “Somatic Embryogenesis-Derived Coffee Plantlets Can Be Efficiently Propagated by Horticultural Rooted Mini-Cuttings: A Boost for Somatic Embryogenesis,” Scientia horticulturae, vol. 216, pp. 177–185, Feb. 2017. doi: 10.1016/j.scienta.2016.12.017. Abstract
     In general, the current industrial somatic embryogenesis (SE) propagation processes for coffee are costly because they are not productive enough. We show that SE-derived plantlets from C. arabica hybrids were temporarily − between 10 and 25 weeks of development in nursery − able to root with a high success rate (up to 90%) whatever the genotype tested, before gradually losing that capacity. We took advantage of this transient rooting capacity, probably due to the rejuvenation process occurring during SE, to establish a new propagation system based on the continuous culture of rejuvenated SE plants and on the serial rooting of cuttings under nursery conditions, known as horticultural rooted mini-cutting (HRMC). The excessively low SE efficiency with an embryo-to-plantlet conversion rate of only 37% can be greatly offset by the much higher HRMC multiplication rate (14 in six months) and better overall quality. Fifteen week-old rooted mini-cuttings proved to be more uniform (2–4.5 vs.1–5.5cm for plant height distribution) and vigorous (1.41 vs. 0.81mm for stem diameter) than same-age somatic seedlings. This effect persisted for five years after field planting, mainly through a slightly greater collar diameter (43.3 vs 40.6mm), whereas at root level no differences were found. The HRMC method is expected to dramatically reduce arabica hybrid production costs (by up to 50% at US$ 0.27/plant ready for field planting) and thus to promote the mass utilization of genetically superior hybrid clones of coffee.
241. A. Georgiou et al., “Leaf Nodule Endosymbiotic Burkholderia Confer Targeted Allelopathy to Their Psychotria Hosts,” Scientific Reports, vol. 11, p. 22465, Nov. 2021. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-01867-2. Abstract
     After a century of investigations, the function of the obligate betaproteobacterial endosymbionts accommodated in leaf nodules of tropical Rubiaceae remained enigmatic. We report that the α-d-glucose analogue (+)-streptol, systemically supplied by mature Ca. Burkholderia kirkii nodules to their Psychotria hosts, exhibits potent and selective root growth inhibiting activity. We provide compelling evidence that (+)-streptol specifically affects meristematic root cells transitioning to anisotropic elongation by disrupting cell wall organization in a mechanism of action that is distinct from canonical cellulose biosynthesis inhibitors. We observed no inhibitory or cytotoxic effects on organisms other than seed plants, further suggesting (+)-streptol as a bona fide allelochemical. We propose that the suppression of growth of plant competitors is a major driver of the formation and maintenance of the Psychotria–Burkholderia association. In addition to potential agricultural applications as a herbicidal agent, (+)-streptol might also prove useful to dissect plant cell and organ growth processes.
242. M. N. Ghazalli et al., “Leaf Anatomy and Micromorphology Characteristics of Ketum [Mitragyna Speciosa (Korth.) Havil.] (Rubiaceae),” Tropical Life Sciences Research, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 107–117, Mar. 2021. doi: 10.21315/tlsr2021.32.1.7. Abstract
     Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil. or locally known as ketum/daun sebiak/biak-biak belongs to Rubiaceae family and generally occurs in secondary forest or disturbed areas in tropical and subtropical region. This research enumerated the characterisation of Mitragyna speciosa leaf anatomy and micromorphology features which is still not well documented. This medium to large sized tree species characterised with opposite arrangement, ovate-acuminate leaf and with 12–17 pairs of veins. Transverse sections of petioles showed that this species has petiole outlines with slightly convex at the middle of the adaxial part and ‘U’-shaped on abaxial side. Results also showed that this species has paracytic and hypostomatic stomata, combination of non-glandular (majority) and glandular trichomes (minority), with observation on the secretory cells present in petiole and midrib parenchyma cells. Cuticle on the abaxial and adaxial epidermal surfaces showed the presence granule and wax films with periclinal and anticlinal walls can be differentiated clearly. The results obtained in this study can be used to providing additional systematics information of Mitragyna speciosa with the documentation of the leaf anatomy and micromorphology characters.
243. R. Ghini et al., “Coffee Growth, Pest and Yield Responses to Free-Air CO2 Enrichment,” Climatic Change, vol. 132, no. 2, pp. 307–320, Sep. 2015. doi: 10.1007/s10584-015-1422-2. Abstract
     Despite the importance of coffee as a globally traded commodity and increasing concerns about risks associated with climate change, there is virtually no information about the effects of rising atmospheric [CO2] on field-grown coffee trees. This study shows the results of the first 2 years of an innovative experiment. Two commercial coffee cultivars (Catuaí and Obatã) were grown using the first free-air CO2 enrichment (FACE) facility in Latin America (ClimapestFACE). Plants of both cultivars maintained relatively high photosynthetic rates, water-use efficiency, increased growth and yield under elevated [CO2]. Harvestable crop yields increased 14.6 % for Catuaí and 12.0 % for Obatã. Leaf N content was lower in Obatã (5.2 %) grown under elevated [CO2] than under ambient [CO2]; N content was unresponsive to elevated [CO2] in Catuaí. Under elevated [CO2] reduced incidence of leaf miners (Leucoptera coffeella) occurred on both coffee cultivars during periods of high infestation. The percentage of leaves with parasitized and predated mines increased when leaf miner infestation was high, but there was no effect of elevated [CO2] on the incidence of natural enemies. The incidence of rust (Hemileia vastatrix) and Cercospora leaf spot (Cercospora coffeicola) was low during the trial, with maximum values of 5.8 and 1 %, respectively, and there was no significant effect of [CO2] treatments on disease incidence. The fungal community associated with mycotoxins was not affected by the treatments.
244. B. Gianfratti, R. Tabach, M. E. Sakalem, T. Stessuk, L. O. Maia, and E. A. Carlini, “Ayahuasca Blocks Ethanol Preference in an Animal Model of Dependence and Shows No Acute Toxicity,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 285, p. 114865, Mar. 2022. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2021.114865. Abstract
     Ethnopharmacological relevance Ayahuasca, a psychoactive beverage prepared from Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis, is originally used by Amazon-based indigenous and mestizo groups for medicinal and ritualistic purposes. Nowadays, ayahuasca is used in religious and shamanic contexts worldwide, and preliminary evidence from preclinical and observational studies suggests therapeutic effects of ayahuasca for the treatment of substance (including alcohol) use disorders. Aim of the study To investigate the initial pharmacological profile of ayahuasca and its effects on ethanol rewarding effect using the conditioned place preference (CPP) paradigm in mice. Materials and methods Ayahuasca beverage was prepared using extracts of B. caapi and P. viridis, and the concentration of active compounds was assessed through high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The following behavioral tests were performed after ayahuasca administration: general pharmacological screening (13, 130, or 1300 mg/kg – intraperitoneally – i.p., and 65, 130, 1300, or 2600 mg/kg – via oral – v.o.); acute toxicity test with elevated doses (2600 mg/kg – i.p., and 5000 mg/kg – v.o.); motor activity, motor coordination, and hexobarbital-induced sleeping time potentiation (250, 500, or 750 mg/kg ayahuasca or vehicle – v.o.). For the CPP test, the animals received ayahuasca (500 mg/kg – v.o.) prior to ethanol (1.8 g/kg – i.p.) or vehicle (control group – i.p.) during conditioning sessions. Results Ayahuasca treatment presented no significant effect on motor activity, motor coordination, hexobarbital-induced sleeping latency or total sleeping time, and did not evoke signs of severe acute toxicity at elevated oral doses. Ayahuasca pre-treatment successfully inhibited the ethanol-induced CPP and induced CPP when administered alone. Conclusions Our results indicate that ayahuasca presents a low-risk acute toxicological profile when administered orally, and presents potential pharmacological properties that could contribute to the treatment of alcohol use disorders.
245. G. S. Giomo, J. Nakagawa, and P. B. Gallo, “Beneficiamento de sementes de café e efeitos na qualidade fisiológica,” Bragantia, vol. 67, pp. 1011–1020, Dec. 2008. doi: 10.1590/S0006-87052008000400025. Abstract
     The objective of this research was to obtain more suitable information concerning coffee seed processing in the air-screen machines and gravity table, studying their effects on the physiological seed quality. One coffee seed lot of the Yellow Catuaí IAC 62 cultivar was processed in a precleaner machine, in an air-screen cleaner and in a gravity table, working in several sequences and combinations, according to technical recommendations for seed processing. The seeds were evaluated as to their physiological quality by the germination test, accelerated aging test, seedling emergence, height and weight of dry matter of seedlings and young plants. The seed moisture was determined at the beginning of the evaluations. The statistical design was randomized blocks with four replications. Mean comparisons were done by the Tukey test at 5 % of probability. It was concluded that: a) physiological seed quality was improved by specific equipments in the several phases of processing, with the best seed quality, obtained with complete operational sequence, where the lot was submitted to the action of the air-screen cleaner and gravity table; b) the gravity table, associated with air-screen cleaner, was effective in removing debris from the seed lot, improving the physiological seed quality; c) larger or denser seeds had superior physiological performance than small sizeor lowdensity seeds, and the large pea berry seeds presented physiological quality similar to the large flat seeds; d) discart of smallest or lightest seeds to improved the physiological seed quality, resulting in homogeneous, and high quality seed lots, and more vigorous young plants.
246. C. B. Giraldo, A. I. U. Trujillo, and E. J. N. Gómez, “Potencial de Regeneración de Psychotria Ipecacuanha (Rubiaceae) a Partir de Capas Delgadas de Células,” 2015. doi: 10.15446/ABC.V20N3.47354. Abstract
     Assessment of the potential of propagation of P. ipecacuanha by in vitro systems of regeneration, organogenesis and somatic embryogenesis found that those corresponding to red, green, and white supported the growth and shoot development as well as somatic embryos induction. Conociendo las propiedades medicinales de la especie vegetal Psychotria ipecacuanha (Brot.) Stokes, su critico estado de conservacion, asi como las dificultades que presenta para la propagacion efectiva, el presente estudio tuvo como objetivo evaluar su potencial de propagacion por los sistemas de regeneracion in vitro , organogenesis y embriogenesis somatica. Para este proposito, capas delgadas de celulas (CDCs) de tallos y de hojas, asi como segmentos foliares fueron sometidos a diferentes tratamientos con reguladores de crecimiento y condiciones de luz. Ademas se establecio el efecto de diferentes longitudes de onda via diodos emisores de luz (LEDs), sobre la regeneracion en estos explantes y nudos provenientes de plantas in vitro . Los resultados obtenidos mostraron que los segmentos de hoja y las CDCs de tallo sembrados en el medio de cultivo MS suplementado con las combinaciones de los reguladores de crecimiento IBA + BAP e IBA + TDZ formaron embriones somaticos y brotes. Los cortes histologicos realizados corroboraron estos dos tipos de origen. Se encontro que bajo la condicion luminica 16/8, se alcanzaron los mejores resultados de induccion de brotes y embriones. En cuanto al efecto de las diferentes longitudes de onda de luz, se encontro que las correspondientes al rojo, verde y blanca, favorecieron el crecimiento y desarrollo de brotes y la induccion de embriones somaticos. El desarrollo de los brotes a partir de los nudos no presento diferencias estadisticas entre los tratamientos con LEDs, por lo que se recomienda el uso de la luz blanca continua y con fotoperiodo durante el proceso de multiplicacion y desarrollo de estos. Regeneration Potential of Psychotria Ipecacuanha (Rubiaceae) from Thin Cell Layers  Knowing the medicinal properties of the plant specie Psychotria ipecacuanha (Brot.) Stokes, its critical condition and the difficulties for its effective propagation, the present study aimed to assess the potential of propagation of P. ipecacuanha by in vitro systems of regeneration, organogenesis and somatic embryogenesis. For this purpose, thin cell layers (TCL) of stems and leaves, as well as leaf segments were subjected to different treatments of plant growth regulators and light conditions. Furthermore, the effect of different wavelengths via light emitting diodes (LED’s), was established for the regeneration in these explants and nodal explants from in vitro plants. The results showed that leaf segments and stem TCL, cultured in MS medium supplemented with the combinations of growth regulators IBA + BAP and IBA + TDZ, formed somatic embryos and shoots. The histological sections supported the two types of source. It was found that the best results in shoot induction and embryos were achieved under the light condition 16/8-h light/dark. Regarding the effect of different wavelengths, it was found that those corresponding to red, green, and white supported the growth and shoot development as well as somatic embryos induction. The shoots development from the nodal explants did not show statistical differences between LEDs treatments, so the use of a continuous white light and photoperiod is recommended during their multiplication and development.
247. J. Girón and E. E. López de León, “Evaluación de la germinación de la variedad robusta (Coffea canephora), a cinco temperaturas por dos períodos de tiempo y comparados con la variedad caturra (Coffea arabica) en la zona de Pueblo Nuevo Viñas, departamento de Santa Rosa [Guatemala],” in 10. Simposio sobre Caficultura Latinoamericana, Tapachula, Mexico, 1988. Abstract
     Presents the results obtained from an investigation carried out by technicians from ANACAFE of Guatemala regarding the evaluation of the germination of the Robusta variety (Coffea canephora) at five temperatures for two periods of time and compared with the Caturra variety (Coffea arabica) in the area. of Pueblo Nuevo Viñas, Santa Rosa Department in Guatemala. The main objective was to provide a technique for obtaining grafting materials (patterns) in an anticipated way to that which normally or naturally occurs in any coffee bean. The aim was to find early germination of the Robusta coffee variety, for hypocotyledon grafting purposes (Reyna Method). The research concluded after the analysis of results that: the methodology of acceleration of germination by means of temperature as a function of time, is not functional and therefore its use is not recommended. (ACH)
248. H. Goldbach and H. A. Vizcarra, “Some Observations on Tetrazolium-Testing of Coffee Seed (Coffea Arabica and C. Canephora).,” Turrialba, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 223–226, 1980. http://biblioteca.catie.ac.cr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=82798. Abstract
     In coffee seeds there is a correlation between the germination test and the results of the tetrazolium test (TTZ), if the lots have high viability. In the range of about 30 to 70 percent germination, TTZ test results generally give higher values. The TTZ test of embryos extracted from seeds is clearer than if it is done on cut seeds, since in the first case the coloration is more uniform and the results are more reliable. In cut seeds there is a tendency for no color to develop on the cut surface of the embryo. Coloring is complete after 3-4 hours in a 1 percent TTZ solution. Robusta coffee embryos are more susceptible to mechanical damage than Arabica coffee. Techniques for its correct preparation are given.
249. L. F. Gomez, J. C. Lopez, N. M. Riano, Y. Lopez, and E. C. Montoya, “Diurnal Changes in Leaf Gas Exchange and Validation of a Mathematical Model for Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Canopy Photosynthesis,” Photosynthetica, vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 575–582, Dec. 2005. doi: 10.1007/s11099-005-0090-2. Abstract
     Diurnal variations in net photosynthetic rate (PN), transpiration rate (E), stomatal conductance (gs), internal CO2 concentration (Ci), and water use efficiency (WUE) were studied on individual leaves of coffee plants to determine the effect of climatic factors on photosynthetic capacity. PN and E showed bimodal behaviour with the maximum values of PN at mid-morning. At noon, under saturating photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and high leaf temperature (Tl), PN declined. In the afternoon (14:00), PN slightly recovered in association with a decrease in Tl and in leaf-to-air vapour pressure deficit (VPD). Reductions in E during the morning were associated with decreases in gs. Higher WUE in the morning was related to higher PN and lower E. The reverse occurred in the afternoon. Goudriaan’s simulation model, adapted for coffee canopy photosynthesis, was tested at the level of whole plant (Ppl). Three methods were used: (a) Whole plant net photosynthesis (Ppl) under semi-controlled conditions in a chamber. (b) Ppl estimation following Goudriaan’s method (Gaussian integration) of instantaneous PN in single leaves at three canopy depths and at three different hours assuming a photosynthesis unimodal behaviour. (c) Ppl using Goudriaan’s method but at five different hours according to the bimodal behaviour reported above. Results of Ppl estimates using Goudriaan’s model adapted for coffee canopy confirm the observed Ppl bimodal behaviour with high fitness degree of the measured whole plant photosynthesis. The high fitness found among observed and simulated data indicates that the modified model may be used as a subroutine for the general simulation model of coffee crop growth.
250. F. Gong, H.-peng Gu, Q.-tai Xu, and W.-yi Kang, “Genus Mitragyna: Ethnomedicinal Uses and Pharmacological Studies,” 2012. Abstract
     Mitragyna genus, belongs to Rubiaceae family, distributed in Africa and Asia. Many species in Mitragyna genus have a history of use as a medicinal plant. Traditionally, it has been used to treat fever, malaria, diarrhea, muscle pain, inflammation and hypertension. Phytochemical research has showed that alkaloids, triterpenoids and flavonoids were main compounds in Mitragyna genus. Pharmacology investigation demonstrated that plant of Mitragyna possess wide pharmacological effects, in antitumor, cardiovascular disease and antibacterial activity. This review aims to update information on its pharmacological effects.
251. D. C. Gontijo et al., “In Vitro Antiplasmodial Activity, Targeted LC–MS Metabolite Profiling, and Identification of Major Natural Products in the Bioactive Extracts of Palicourea and Psychotria Species from the Amazonia and Atlantic Forest Biomes, Brazil,” Metabolomics, vol. 17, no. 9, p. 81, Sep. 2021. doi: 10.1007/s11306-021-01833-z. Abstract
     A great variety of bioactive natural products has been reported for different Palicourea and Psychotria species (Rubiaceae). However, few of them as well as few of species of these botanical genera have been evaluated for antiplasmodial activity.
252. H. González-Osorio, C. E. G. Botero, R. D. M. Rivera, and N. W. O. Vega, “Screening for Phosphate-Solubilizing Fungi from Colombian Andisols Cultivated with Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.),” 2020. doi: 10.25186/.v15i.1666. Abstract
     Phosphate (P) bioavailability is severely constrained in volcanic ash soils due to its high fixation rate. To overcome this problem the use of P-solubilizing fungi (PSF) has been proposed gaining recently great attention. To provide a better understanding of the dynamics of PSF in soils and to establish criteria for screening effective PSF a series of studies were conducted. PSF were isolated from coffee plantations grown in a Typic Udivitrand (QU), a Pachic Fulvundand (CH), and a Typic Melanudand (Ti). Fifty-five isolates (28 from CH, 19 from Ti, and 8 from QU) produced index of P solubilization among 16 and 106 10-6 kg dm-3 using as P source phosphate rock. The results suggest that the microbial P solubilization was not only associated to the decrease in the culture medium pH, but also the production of organic acids is associated with the most effective PSF. The higher production of organic acids seems to be associated with a lower fungal colony growth rate likely due to a carbon/energy drainage. The soil P-fixation capacity, soil organic content and degree of humification seems to control the relative abundance of PSF in the soils tested. In soils cultivated with coffee Phlebia gender is reported, for the first time, as a PSF.
253. O. Grundmann, R. G. Hendrickson, and M. I. Greenberg, “Kratom: History, Pharmacology, Current User Trends, Adverse Health Effects and Potential Benefits,” Disease-a-Month, p. 101442, Jun. 2022. doi: 10.1016/j.disamonth.2022.101442. Abstract
     Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) is a tree native to Southeast Asia with dose-dependent stimulant and opioid-like effects. Dried, powdered leaf material is among the kratom products most commonly consumed in the US and Europe, but other formulations also exist including enriched extracts, resins, tinctures, and edibles. Its prevalence in the US remains debated and the use pattern includes self-treatment of mood disorders, pain, and substance use disorders. Most of the adverse effects of kratom and its alkaloid mitragynine have been reported in the literature as case reports or part of surveys necessitating confirmation by clinical trials. Toxicities associated with kratom consumption have focused on hepatic, cardiac, and CNS effects with the potential to cause fatalities primarily as part of polydrug exposures. Kratom may also present with drug-drug interactions primarily through CYP 3A4 and 2D6 inhibition, although the clinical significance remains unknown to date. The variability in composition of commercially available kratom products complicates generalization of findings and requires further investigation by employing clinical trials. Healthcare professionals should remain cautious in counseling patients on the use of kratom in a therapeutic setting.
254. F. A. de F. Guedes et al., “Transcriptional Memory Contributes to Drought Tolerance in Coffee (Coffea Canephora) Plants,” Environmental and Experimental Botany, vol. 147, pp. 220–233, Mar. 2018. doi: 10.1016/j.envexpbot.2017.12.004. Abstract
     Water deprivation is an important limiting factor in the productivity of crops like coffee. In addition to transcription factors (TFs) and small non-coding RNAs, transcriptional memory seems to act in gene expression modulation during plant drought response. Here, a RNA-Seq approach was used to investigate the drought responses of Coffea canephora clones 109 and 120, which are respectively sensitive and tolerant to drought. Illumina sequencing allowed us to identify differentially expressed genes (DEG) in the tolerant (826) and sensitive (135) clones and their enriched categories. Our results indicate that the sensitive clone may trigger an oxidative stress response, possibly leading to programmed cell death, when exposed to multiple drought episodes. The acclimation of tolerant plants, on the other hand, seems to involve antioxidant secondary metabolism and the ABA response. Most importantly, 49 memory genes were identified in the tolerant clone. They were mainly linked to the ABA pathway, protein folding and biotic stress. Small RNA profiling also identified regulatory microRNAs in coffee leaves, including hundreds of putative novel ones. Our findings strongly suggest that transcriptional memory modulates the expression of drought-responsive genes and contributes to drought tolerance in C. canephora.
255. D. Guglielmo-Cróquer, I. Altosaar, M. Zaidi, and A. Menéndez-Yuffá, “Transformation of Coffee (Coffea Arabica L. Cv. Catimor) with the Cry1ac Gene by Biolistic, without the Use of Markers,” Brazilian Journal of Biology, vol. 70, pp. 387–393, 2010. doi: 10.1590/S1519-69842010000200022. Abstract
     The transformation of coffee plantlets with the cry1ac gene of Bacillus thuringiensis was achieved by biolistic using either the whole pUBC plasmid or only the ubi-cry1ac-nos genetic cassette. The cry1ac gene was inserted into coffee plants in order to confer resistance to the leaf miner Leucoptera coffeella, an insect responsible for considerable losses in coffee crops. Bearing in mind that the genetic cassettes used for this study lack reporter genes and/or selection marker genes, the parameters for the transformation procedure by biolistic were previously standardised with a plasmid carrying the gus reporter gene. The presence of the cry1ac gene in young plantlet tissues was determined by PCR, Southern blot and reverse transcription-PCR. Our results show that the obtainment of viable coffee plantlets, transformed by bombardment with the cry1ac gene and without selection markers nor reporter genes, is feasible.
256. M. L. Guimaraes, M. C. Pimenta, and J. Montezuma-de-Carvalho, “Problems of Soil Adaptation in Plantlets of Coffea Arabica L. Obtained via Somatic Embryogenesis,” in Symposium on In Vitro Problems Related to Mass Propagation of Horticultural Plants 212, 1985, pp. 315–321. doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.1987.212.47. Abstract
     Clonal propagation of Coffea arabica L. can be achieved by induced somatic embryogenesis in vitro cultures of mature leaf explants. The protocol for obtaining perfect embryos bearing a bipolarity (shoot and root poles) consisted of a primary culture on a "conditioning medium" followed by culture on an "induction medium" as described by Söndahl and Sharp (1977). Afterwards we have used, instead of a solid medium, liquid media for further growth of these embryos. Experiments were conducted in order to see the effects of various plant growth regulators: benzylaminopurine (BAP); gibberellic acid (GA3); indole acetic acid (IAA) and naphtalene acetic acid (NAA) on the morphology of the derived plantlets. It was found that GA3 gives a good development of the hypocotyl but reduces cotyledonary leaves; BAP at optimal concentration (1.5 mg/l) gives a drastic increase of the cotyledonary area; IAA and NAA promote root development. In the selected medium (1.5 mg/l BAP; 1.0 mg/l GA3 and 1.0 mg/l IAA) plantlets grown under illumination at 25°C mimic normal seedlings. Only plantlets that have a good development of the cotyledonary leaves survive when transferred directly from the liquid media into the soil.
257. S. N. Gummadi, B. Bhavya, and N. Ashok, “Physiology, Biochemistry and Possible Applications of Microbial Caffeine Degradation,” Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, vol. 93, no. 2, pp. 545–554, Jan. 2012. doi: 10.1007/s00253-011-3737-x. Abstract
     Caffeine, a purine alkaloid is a constituent of widely consumed beverages. The scientific evidence which has proved the harm of this alkaloid has paved the way for innumerable research in the area of caffeine degradation. In addition to this, the fact that the by-products of the coffee and tea industry pollute the environment has called for the need of decaffeinating coffee and tea industry’s by-products. Though physical and chemical methods for decaffeination are available, the lack of specificity for removal of caffeine in these techniques and their non-eco-friendly nature has opened the area of microbial and enzymatic degradation of caffeine. Another important application of microbial caffeine degradation apart from its advantages like specificity, eco-friendliness and cost-effectiveness is the fact that this process will enable the production of industrially and medically useful components of the caffeine degradation pathway like theobromine and theophylline. This is a comprehensive review which mainly focuses on caffeine degradation, large-scale degradation of the same and its applications in the industrial world.
258. L. R. Gustianty, “Shoot Cuttings Response of Ateng Coffee Plant (Coffea Sp.) on Giving Thiamine (Vitamin B1),” in Multi-Disciplinary International Conference University of Asahan, Kisaran North Sumatra, 2019, no. 1. http://www.jurnal.una.ac.id/index.php/seminter2019/article/view/577.
259. G. Habte et al., “Elemental Profiling and Geographical Differentiation of Ethiopian Coffee Samples through Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES), ICP-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) and Direct Mercury Analyzer (DMA),” Food Chemistry, vol. 212, pp. 512–520, Dec. 2016. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.05.178. Abstract
     This study was aimed to establish the elemental profiling and provenance of coffee samples collected from eleven major coffee producing regions of Ethiopia. A total of 129 samples were analyzed for forty-five elements using inductively coupled plasma (ICP)-optical emission spectroscopy (OES), ICP-mass spectrometry (MS) and direct mercury analyzer (DMA). Among the macro elements, K showed the highest levels whereas Fe was found to have the lowest concentration values. In all the samples, Ca, K, Mg, P and S contents were statistically significant (p<0.05). Micro elements showed the concentrations order of: Mn>Cu>Sr>Zn>Rb>Ni>B. Contents of the trace elements were lower than the permissible standard values. Inter-regions differentiation by cluster analysis (CA), linear discriminant analysis (LDA) and principal component analysis (PCA) showed that micro and trace elements are the best chemical descriptors of the analyzed coffee samples.
260. G. J. Hakiza, D. T. Kyetere, M. Erbaugh, H. Warren, and S. Olal, “Seed Transmission of Fusarium Xylarioides in Coffea Canephora in Uganda,” Uganda Journal of Agricultural Sciences, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 714–717, 2004. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ujas/article/view/135575. Abstract
     A study was carried out to determine whether or not Fusarium xylarioides (= Gibberella xylarioides) could be transmitted by infested seed of robusta coffee (Coffea canephora Pierre). Seeds were collected from symptomatic and asymptomatic plants from various robusta coffee growing districts in Uganda and from experimental fields at the Coffee Research Institute (CORI), based at Kituza in Mukono district. A total of 43 seed samples from 13 districts were collected between 2000 and 2003. To test for presence of the wilt pathogen, the seeds were separated into two groups. The first group of seeds were surface sterilised and the second group were not sterilised. Both seed categories were plated on blotter, agar plates or planted in sterile sand beds. Fungi detected on seeds plated on blotter and agar plates, from both sterilised and unsterilised seeds were Fusarium stilboides, F. lateritium, Aspergillus ochraceous, A. niger, A. flavus, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and other unidentified fungi. F. xylarioides was not detected by either blotter or agar plate methods. Seed germination varied between 30 – 50% for seeds from wilted trees compared to 76 – 85% for seeds from healthy trees. Although plants from diseased mother trees remained stunted no wilt pathogen was recovered from them 3 years from planting. All tests were negative for the coffee wilt pathogen, indicating that F. xylarioides is not seed transmitted and that the rapid spread of the disease throughout the robusta districts cannot be attributed to the use of seeds for propagation.
261. A. Hamadi, “Response of Four Robusta Coffee (Coffea Canephora) Varieties to Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium,” Thesis, Sokoine University of Agriculture, 2016. http://www.suaire.sua.ac.tz/handle/123456789/1454. Abstract
     The study aimed at identifying the best varieties among the four Robusta coffee varieties in terms of N, P and K nutrients use efficiency, absorption efficiency and translocation efficiency. First, a survey was conducted to determine the fertility status of the coffee growing areas in eight villages namely Igomba, Kiilima, Katangalala, Mishozi, Katale, Bugabo, Bulinda and Bugaruka. Then, a screen house pot experiment was conducted in a Completely Randomized Design in a 3x4 factorial scheme with three rates of N, P and K; Urea (0, 150, 300 kg N/ha equivalent to 0, 75, 150 mg N/kg of soil), TSP (0, 75, 150 kg P/ha equivalent to 0, 37.5, 75 mg P/kg of soil) and KCl (0, 150, 300 kg K/ha equivalent to 0, 75, 150 mg K/kg of soil) and four Robusta coffee varieties (MR 10, BK 27, ML 2 and 13/61). After 6 months, the whole plants were uprooted, washed and roots separated from the aerial parts for determination of shoot dry matter and root dry matter, and N, P and K contents in the whole coffee plants. Nutrient use efficiency, nutrient absorption efficiency and nutrient translocation efficiency for N, P and K were calculated. Results indicated that the overall soil fertility status of the surveyed areas were generally low, with low pH ranged from 4.12 to 5.53, organic carbon ranged from 0.09% to 2.25%, total nitrogen range from 0.056 to 0.192 %, available P ranged from 20.21 to 68.29 mg/kg and potassium ranged from 0.11 to 1.81 cmol (+) kg-1. The varieties MR 10, BK 27 and 13/61 are most efficient in low nitrogen. Varieties BK 27 and 13/61 are most efficient in low soil P and K. Varieties which are more responsive and efficient to absorb translocation and use the added nutrients’ elements and hence can adapt to low soil fertility areas are BK 27, 13/61 and MR 10. In order to improve the production level of coffee in Kagera, distribution of the most responsive varieties should be the first priority.
262. A. Hameed, S. A. Hussain, and H. A. R. Suleria, “‘Coffee Bean-Related’ Agroecological Factors Affecting the Coffee,” in Co-Evolution of Secondary Metabolites, J.-M. Mérillon and K. G. Ramawat, Eds. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2020, pp. 641–705. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-96397-6_21. Abstract
     Coffee is the most consumed processed beverage aside from water, and green coffee beans are the most traded agriculture commodity after petroleum in the world. The agricultural production of green coffee beans and consumption of coffee have been increasing by 17% and 2% at an annual rate during the previous decades, respectively. The credit of increasing coffee production and consumption goes to its alluring organoleptic characteristics. The organoleptic or final cup quality characteristic of coffee is a multifactorial and complex trait, and both agricultural and postharvest processing factors influence this multifaceted trait significantly. Agroproduction technology of coffee influences 40% cup quality attributes of coffee beverage, whereas remaining 60% quality attributes are determined by postharvest processing technology. In this chapter, the relationship of organoleptic or final cup quality attributes with agricultural and environmental factors was reviewed. The analysis focused on how these factors affect the physical quality attributes of coffee beans in addition to the biochemical cup quality attributes. An overview of agricultural and environmental factors of coffee identified a critical impact of these factors in determining the physical and biochemical cup quality attributes. Geographical topography (especially altitude, slope of attitude, its steepness) was found to be the major element which also dictated the scope of influence of subsequent agricultural and environmental factors. Coffee verities or genetics, rainfall, frost, temperature, soil fertilization status, sun and shade ecosystems, and harvesting strategies played a decisive role in shaping not only the final physical and biochemical cup quality attributes but also in postharvest processing approaches. Each coffee variety (both C. arabica and C. robusta) is specified to a specific region with a set of its own inherent quality characteristics which played an important role in the production of certified specialty, organic, or other same kind of coffees. Moreover, there are still some bottlenecks that need to be addressed in order to fully understand the critical relationship of agricultural and environmental factors with final physical and biochemical cup quality attributes.
263. J. Hamill, J. Hallak, S. M. Dursun, and G. Baker, “Ayahuasca: Psychological and Physiologic Effects, Pharmacology and Potential Uses in Addiction and Mental Illness,” Current Neuropharmacology, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 108–128, Feb. 2019. doi: 10.2174/1570159X16666180125095902. Abstract
     Background: Ayahuasca, a traditional Amazonian decoction with psychoactive properties, is made from bark of the Banisteriopsis caapi vine (containing beta-carboline alkaloids) and leaves of the Psychotria viridis bush (supplying the hallucinogen N,N-dimethyltryptamine, DMT). Originally used by indigenous shamans for the purposes of spirit communication, magical experiences, healing, and religious rituals across several South American countries, ayahuasca has been incorporated into folk medicine and spiritual healing, and several Brazilian churches use it routinely to foster a spiritual experience. More recently, it is being used in Europe and North America, not only for religious or healing reasons, but also for recreation. Objective: To review ayahuasca’s behavioral effects, possible adverse effects, proposed mechanisms of action and potential clinical uses in mental illness. Method: We searched Medline, in English, using the terms ayahuasca, dimethyltryptamine, Banisteriopsis caapi, and Psychotria viridis and reviewed the relevant publications. Results: The following aspects of ayahuasca are summarized: Political and legal factors; acute and chronic psychological effects; electrophysiological studies and imaging; physiological effects; safety and adverse effects; pharmacology; potential psychiatric uses. Conclusion: Many years of shamanic wisdom have indicated potential therapeutic uses for ayahuasca, and several present day studies suggest that it may be useful for treating various psychiatric disorders and addictions. The side effect profile appears to be relatively mild, but more detailed studies need to be done. Several prominent researchers believe that government regulations with regard to ayahuasca should be relaxed so that it could be provided more readily to recognized, credible researchers to conduct comprehensive clinical trials.
264. C. W. Hamilton, “A Revision of Mesoamerican Psychotria Subgenus Psychotria (Rubiaceae), Part I: Introduction and Species 1-16,” Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, vol. 76, no. 1, pp. 67–111, 1989. doi: 10.2307/2399343. Abstract
     Psychotria subgenus Psychotria (Rubiaceae) comprises 61 species and eight varieties of understory shrubs and small trees in Mexico and Central America. The subgenus is most diverse in Panama (40 species) and Costa Rica (32 species), with a secondary center of diversity in southern Mexico (26 species) and Guatemala (26 species). Endemism is also greatest in Panama (15 species). Species-rich regions in Costa Rica and Panama are especially recommended for conservation efforts. The 61 species are grouped into eight species-groups; several groups and species complexes contain one wide-ranging species and several species with much smaller ranges. Only one species-rich group, the P. calophylla group, lacks a continuously wide-ranging member.
265. H. N. Hanifah, G. Hadisoebroto, and L. Dewi, “Comparison of Phenolic, Flavonoid, and Tannin Contents from Ethanol Extract of Kratom Stem (Mitragyna Speciosa Korth.) and Senggani Flower (Melastoma Malabathrium L.),” Journal of Physics: Conference Series, vol. 1869, no. 1, p. 012002, Apr. 2021. doi: 10.1088/1742-6596/1869/1/012002. Abstract
     Indonesia is a country known for its useful natural resources, especially for a health maintenance and treatment of diseases. Some of the plants that can be used as traditional medicine are kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth) and Senggani (Melastoma malabathrium L.). The purpose of this research was to determine the total phenolic content, total flavonoids content, and total tannins content in the ethanol extract of kratom stems and flowers using the UV-Vis spectrophotometric method. The comparator used in determining the phenolic content was gallic acid, for the flavonoid content was quercetin, and for the tannin content was tannic acid. The results of this study showed that the total phenolic content in the kratom stem extract was 23.59 mg/gram of extract, while in the senggani flower was 43.97 mg/gram of extract. The total flavonoid content in the kratom stem extract was 10.65 mg/gram of extract, while the senggani flower was 11.26 mg/gram of extract. Lastly, the total tannin content in the kratom stem extract was 17.99 mg/gram of extract, while in the senggani flower it was 13.74 mg/g extract.
266. J. Hanna, “Bogus Kratom Market Exposed,” no. 1, p. 4, 2003.
267. C. Hartley II, M. Bulloch, and S. R. Penzak, “Clinical Pharmacology of the Dietary Supplement Kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa),” The Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, vol. 62, no. 5, pp. 577–593, 2022. doi: 10.1002/jcph.2001. Abstract
     Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) consists of over 40 alkaloids, with 2 of them, mitragynine and 7-OH-mitragynine (7-OH-MG) being the main psychoactive compounds. Mitragynine and 7-OH-mitragynine each target opioid receptors and have been referred to as atypical opioids. They exert their pharmacologic effects on the mu, delta, and kappa opioid receptors. In addition, they affect adrenergic, serotonergic, and dopaminergic pathways. Kratom has been touted as an inexpensive, legal alternative to standard opioid replacement therapy such as methadone and buprenorphine. Other uses for kratom include chronic pain, attaining a “legal high,” and numerous central nervous system disorders, including anxiety, depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Kratom induces analgesia and mild euphoria, with a lower risk of respiratory depression or adverse central nervous system effects compared to traditional opioid medications. Nonetheless, kratom has been associated with both physical and psychological dependence, with some individuals experiencing classic opioid withdrawal symptoms upon abrupt cessation. Kratom use has been linked to serious adverse effects, including liver toxicity, seizures, and death. These risks are often compounded by polysubstance abuse. Further, kratom may potentiate the toxicity of coadministered medications through modulation of cytochrome P450, P-glycoprotein, and uridine diphosphate glucuronosyltransferase enzymes. In 2016, the US Drug Enforcement Administration took steps to classify kratom as a federal schedule 1 medication; however, due to public resistance, this plan was set aside. Until studies are conducted that define kratom’s role in treating opioid withdrawal and/or other central nervous system conditions, kratom will likely remain available as a dietary supplement for the foreseeable future.
268. C. W. Heise and D. E. Brooks, “Ayahuasca Exposure: Descriptive Analysis of Calls to US Poison Control Centers from 2005 to 2015,” Journal of Medical Toxicology, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 245–248, Sep. 2017. doi: 10.1007/s13181-016-0593-1. Abstract
     Ayahuasca is a hallucinogenic plant preparation which usually contains the vine Banisteriopsis caapi and the shrub Psychotria viridis. This tea originates from the Amazon Basin where it is used in religious ceremonies. Because interest in these religious groups spreading as well as awareness of use of ayahuasca for therapeutic and recreational purposes, its use is increasing. Banisteriopsis caapi is rich in β-carbolines, especially harmine, tetrahydroharmine and harmaline, which have monoamine oxidase inhibiting (MAOI) activity. Psychotria viridis contains the 5HT2A/2C/1A receptor agonist hallucinogen N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT). Usual desired effects include hallucination, dissociation, mood alteration and perception change. Undesired findings previously reported are nausea, vomiting, hypertension, and tachycardia.
269. S. R. Hemingway, P. J. Houghton, J. D. Phillipson, and E. J. Shellard, “9-Hydroxyrhynchophylline-Type Oxindole Alkaloids,” Phytochemistry, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 557–563, Feb. 1975. doi: 10.1016/0031-9422(75)85128-4. Abstract
     Speciofoline has been assigned the epiallo B configuration on the basis of isomerization studies, NMR and CD spectra, and three new speciofoline isomers, mitrafoline (allo A), isomitrafoline (allo B) and isospeciofoline (epiallo A) have been isolated from Mitragyna speciosa Korth. Two new C-20 vinyl alkaloids, rotundifoleine and isorotundifoleine, have been separated as minor products from crystalline samples of rotundifoline and isorotundifoline respectively, previously isolated from M. parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. A transient product observed during the isomerization of isorotundifoline has been identified as the pseudo B isomer, 3-epi-isorotundifoline.
270. B. E. Hetzler, D. Trauner, and A. L. Lawrence, “Natural Product Anticipation through Synthesis,” Nature Reviews Chemistry, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 170–181, Mar. 2022. doi: 10.1038/s41570-021-00345-7. Abstract
     Natural product synthesis remains one of the most vibrant and intellectually rewarding areas of chemistry, although the justifications for pursuing it have evolved over time. In the early years, the emphasis lay on structure elucidation and confirmation through synthesis, as exemplified by celebrated studies on cocaine, morphine, strychnine and chlorophyll. This was followed by a phase where the sheer demonstration that highly complex molecules could be recreated in the laboratory in a rational manner was enough to justify the economic expense and intellectual agonies of a synthesis. Since then, syntheses of natural products have served as platforms for the demonstration of elegant strategies, for inventing new methodology ‘on the fly’ or to demonstrate the usefulness and scope of methods established with simpler molecules. We now add another aspect that we find fascinating, viz. ‘natural product anticipation’. In this Review, we survey cases where the synthesis of a compound in the laboratory has preceded its isolation from nature. The focus of our Review lies on examples where this anticipation of a natural product has triggered a successful search or where synthesis and isolation have occurred independently. Finally, we highlight cases where a potential natural product structure has been suggested as a result of synthetic endeavours but not yet confirmed by isolation, inviting further collaborations between synthetic and natural product chemists.
271. P. C. Hilst, D. C. F. dos S. Dias, E. M. Alvarenga, and B. L. de Souza, “Test of Exudates Color Hues for Evaluating the Physiological Potential of Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Seeds,” Revista Brasileira de Sementes, vol. 34, no. 2, pp. 212–217, 2012. doi: 10.1590/S0101-31222012000200004. Abstract
     Coffee seeds have slow and irregular germination, losing fast their viability during storage, and the standard germination test of these seeds requires at least 30 days. Besides, the results may not reflect the actual physiological quality of these seeds. The objective of this work was to develop a fast and practical test for evaluating the viability of coffee seeds, which is based on the interpretation of different color hues of exudates from seeds. Coffee seeds of the cultivar Catuai 44 from six lots were submitted to germination, accelerated aging, and electrical conductivity tests. In the exudates color hue test, coffee seeds without the parchment and the silvery pellicle (four replications of 10 seeds each) were distributed on top of paper towels moistened and then maintained into a germinator, at 25 ºC for 24, 48, 72, 96, and 120 h. Three classes of color hues were established: colorless, light color hue, and dark color hue, assigning the values of 0, 1, and 3, for each class, respectively. The proposed exudates color hue test can be recommended for the fast assessment of viability for coffee seeds. The most promising results were obtained for seeds with 12% moisture content, after imbibition periods of 72, 96, and 120 h; and with 30% moisture content, after imbibition periods of 72 and 120 h.
272. P. J. Houghton and I. M. Said, “3-Dehydromitragynine: An Alkaloid from Mitragyna Speciosa,” Phytochemistry, vol. 25, no. 12, pp. 2910–2912, Jan. 1986. doi: 10.1016/S0031-9422(00)83771-1. Abstract
     An investigation of the fresh leaves of Mitragyna speciosa has resulted in the isolation of a new alkaloid in addition to the indole alkaloids previously reported. The new alkaloid is the 3-dehydro derivative of mitragynine and its structure was elucidated by spectral means and chemical transformations. (-)-Epicatechin was also isolated from the leaves.
273. P. J. Houghton, A. Latiff, and I. M. Said, “Alkaloids from Mitragyna Speciosa,” Phytochemistry, vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 347–350, Jan. 1991. doi: 10.1016/0031-9422(91)84152-I. Abstract
     The major alkaloids present in very young leaves of Mitragyna speciosa from Malaysia were shown to be highly conjugated indoles, mitragynaline and corynantheidaline. Related compounds are also present in smaller amounts and two others were isolated and characterized (named mitragynalinic acid and corynantheidalinic acid). Mitragynaline is also present as a minor component in mature leaves of the plant.
274. P. J. Houghton and E. J. Shellard, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia XXVIII The Alkaloidal Pattern in Mitragyna Rotundifolia from Burma,” Planta Medica, vol. 26, no. 6, pp. 104–112, Sep. 1974. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1097976. Abstract
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275. Y. Huang, Q. Y. Lan, Y. Hua, Y. L. Luo, and X. F. Wang, “Desiccation and Storage Studies on Three Cultivars of Arabica Coffee,” Seed Science and Technology, vol. 42, no. 1, pp. 60–67, Apr. 2014. doi: 10.15258/sst.2014.42.1.06. Abstract
     Freshly harvested mature seeds of three cultivars of Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica var. Jamaica, cv. catimor 7963 and cv. blue mountain 1) were used to examine the effect of temperature (10-35°C) on germination, the desiccation tolerance of seeds following rapid dehydration and the effects of storage temperature (4, 10 and 15°C) on germination. Seeds attained a higher germination at 20, 25 and 30°C (P < 0.05) than at other temperatures. Seeds of blue mountain 1 are the most tolerant to desiccation, with seeds of Jamaica being superior to those of catimor 7963. A high seed water content (about 0.1026 g H2O g-1 DW) combined with a storage temperature of 15°C was found to be the most suitable set of conditions for the conservation of Arabica coffee seeds.
276. L. Hudson Alumiro, “Direct Somatic Embryogenesis of Selected Commercial Coffea Arabica L. Varieties in Kenya,” PhD thesis, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, 2015. http://ir.jkuat.ac.ke/handle/123456789/1821. Abstract
     Breeding programs in Kenya have produced disease tolerant Coffea arabica varieties such as Ruiru 11 and Batian. Subsequently demand has surpassed supply. Existing propagation methods do not provide enough planting materials, hence the need to develop alternative methods of coffee propagation. The objective of this study was to develop an efficient In vitro regeneration protocol for coffee varieties Batian, Ruiru 11 and SL28 commercially grown in Kenya. Sterilization was carried out using different concentrations of Jik® (3.85 v/v sodium hypochlorite) for varied exposure times. A single step sterilization procedure was established using 28% for 25minutes and is recommended for further work. The effects of various auxins and cytokinins on the different In vitro regeneration stages of coffee were evaluated. The results showed significant differences among the different cytokinin and auxin levels for regeneration of the evaluated varieties. The best cytokinin level for induction of somatic embryogenesis was found to be 13.3µM Benzyl amino purine giving the highest mean number of somatic embryos across all selected varieties. Germination of somatic embryos was achieved on hormone free (control) Murashige and Skoog media and there were no significant differences amongst the evaluated levels of Benzyl amino purine. 2.5 µM NAA was best in induction of a well-developed root system for all the evaluated varieties with a mean length of 1.71±0.09mm for SL28 variety. The findings of this research work open an otherwise inadequately explored area for maximizing In vitro plantlet production in coffee that needs to be fully exploited.
277. A. V. Humberto and H. Goldbach, “Storage of Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Seed,” Journal of Seed Technology, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 7–13, 1980. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23432818. Abstract
     Seeds of Coffea arabica, ’Caturra’, were kept under different storage conditions. When sealed hermetically in gas-proof foil packets and stored at 10 C, seeds with 43% moisture content maintained 74% viability for five months. At moisture contents of approximately 31% and 36%, seeds deteriorated much faster. Seeds kept 6 months in "open" storage at 10 C and in an atmosphere of 70 to 90% relative humidity (RH), resulting in a seed moisture content (s.m.c.) of 15 and 23%, respectively, maintained high viability (between 84 and 92%) over six months; whereas, most seeds died at 50% RH (9% s.m.c.) Drying to 6% s.m.c. quickly killed coffee seeds. Surprisingly, some 20-25% of the seeds at 13% s.m.c. survived over six months at -20 C, a temperature thought to be lethal to so-called recalcitrant seeds. Simple classification of seeds as either ’orthodox’ or ’recalcitrant’ does not take into account the more complex storage behavior of species such as coffee.
278. M. Ibrahim, T. Kufa, and K. Belachew, “Growth Response of Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Cultivars to Various Transplanting Methods at Bonga, South Western Ethiopia,” Growth, vol. 5, no. 7, 2015. https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JNSR/article/view/21493. Abstract
     The use of an appropriate transplanting techniques and polythene bags (pot sizes) for cultivars vary from place to place due to lack of information based technology. Therefore, there is a need to determine area specific transplanting techniques for available cultivars. Accordingly, an experiment was conducted to evaluate the growth response of Coffee arabica cultivars to transplanting methods at Bonga South Western Ethiopia, in 2012/2013 cropping season. The first set of experiment encompasses two experiment factors that were two transplanting methods (bare rooted and ball rooted) and six (Coffea arabica L.) cultivars (75227, 741, 7440, Dessu, 74110 and 74112); their factorial combination was tested using randomized complete block design with three replications. Bare root transplanting methods significantly(p<0.05) increase seedling vigor indices at first true leaf, leaf area index (LAI), internodes length, plant height and root volume (RV) and total biomass (TDW) at early growth stage of Arabica coffee seedlings, however it showed lower survival percentage (52.20% ) after field transplanting. On the other hand, Seedling growth parameters; number of leaf, LAI, plant height, stem girth, root volume and TDW were significantly (p<0.05) influenced by arabica coffee genotypes. TDW increases from 2.65 g and 2.65 g/ seedling to 3.51 g and 3.50 g /seedling for 75227 and 741 open Arabica cultivars, respectively, however, open Arabica coffee cultivar (741) was revealed lower field survival percentage (48.83% ) after field transplanting. Generally, coffee seedling grown under ball rooted transplanting methods were found under good growth performance (93.06% ) after field transplanting. Therefore, among the studied Arabica coffee cultivars 7410, 74112, Dessue and 75227 could be recommended to be raised on ball rooted transplanting methods as an agronomical feasible choice for the study area.
279. ICEERS, “Italy’s Recent Decision to Schedule Ayahuasca,” ICEERS. Apr-2022. https://www.iceers.org/italys-decision-schedule-ayahuasca/. Abstract
     In March 2022, Italy’s government made the two principal ingredients of ayahuasca Schedule I controlled substances. Read our comments here.
280. A. Iguchi, K. Sanmiya, and K. Watanabe, “Identification of Genes Encoding ALMT and MATE Transporters as Candidate Aluminum Tolerance Genes from a Typical Acid Soil Plant, Psychotria Rubra (Rubiaceae),” PeerJ, 2019. doi: 10.7717/peerj.7739. Abstract
     The transcriptome of seedlings of Psychotria rubra was analyzed and several encoding proteins of the Al3+-activated malate transporter (ALMT) and multidrug and toxic compound extrusion (MATE) families were identified, revealing the grouping of those from P. rubra. To understand how tropical plants have adapted to acid soils, we analyzed the transcriptome of seedlings of Psychotria rubra, a typical species found on acid soils. Using RNA-seq, we identified 22,798 genes, including several encoding proteins of the Al3+-activated malate transporter (ALMT) and multidrug and toxic compound extrusion (MATE) families. Molecular phylogenetic analysis of ALMTs and MATEs revealed the grouping of those from P. rubra, which may be useful to select targets for elucidating the molecular basis of P. rubra adaptation to acid soils in the future. The transcriptome datasets obtained in this study would help us to further understand the physiological and ecological aspects of soil adaptation of Psychotria species.
281. J. Jaipaew, T. Padungchareon, and S. Sukrong, “PCR-Reverse Dot Blot of the Nucleotide Signature Sequences of matK for the Identification of Mitragyna Speciosa, a Narcotic Species,” Plant Gene, vol. 14, pp. 46–54, Jun. 2018. doi: 10.1016/j.plgene.2018.04.005. Abstract
     Four species of Mitragyna plants exist in Thailand, including Mitragyna speciosa, M. rotundifolia, M. hirsuta, and M. diversifolia. M. speciosa, or “Kratom” in Thai, is the only narcotic species that has been prohibited by law in Thailand. It causes addiction and sometimes fatalities when overdosed. The accurate detection of this species is needed in forensic justice for legal proceedings. In this study, we aim to develop an assay based on DNA barcoding for the detection of M. speciosa in forensic specimens. DNA barcodes of the matK, rbcL, psbA-trnH and ITS2 regions of the four Mitragyna species were established. The matK nucleotide signature site was selected as a target for the discrimination of M. speciosa, a narcotic species, from non-narcotics by using PCR-reverse dot blot (RDB) hybridization assay. This RDB assay is highly specific and selective for M. speciosa, costs little and is easily performed without advanced analytical equipment. This method is an alternative to DNA sequencing for the detection of M. speciosa in suspected samples. Using PCR-RDB to detect the polymorphisms of matK holds promise as a routine method to test for the presence of M. speciosa in forensic specimens.
282. T. Joët et al., “Metabolic Pathways in Tropical Dicotyledonous Albuminous Seeds: Coffea Arabica as a Case Study,” New Phytologist, vol. 182, no. 1, pp. 146–162, 2009. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2008.02742.x. Abstract
     • The genomic era facilitates the understanding of how transcriptional networks are interconnected to program seed development and filling. However, to date, little information is available regarding dicot seeds with a transient perisperm and a persistent, copious endosperm. Coffea arabica is the subject of increasing genomic research and is a model for nonorthodox albuminous dicot seeds of tropical origin. • The aim of this study was to reconstruct the metabolic pathways involved in the biosynthesis of the main coffee seed storage compounds, namely cell wall polysaccharides, triacylglycerols, sucrose, and chlorogenic acids. For this purpose, we integrated transcriptomic and metabolite analyses, combining real-time RT-PCR performed on 137 selected genes (of which 79 were uncharacterized in Coffea) and metabolite profiling. • Our map-drawing approach derived from model plants enabled us to propose a rationale for the peculiar traits of the coffee endosperm, such as its unusual fatty acid composition, remarkable accumulation of chlorogenic acid and cell wall polysaccharides. • Comparison with the developmental features of exalbuminous seeds described in the literature revealed that the two seed types share important regulatory mechanisms for reserve biosynthesis, independent of the origin and ploidy level of the storage tissue.
283. S. S. Jumali, I. M. Said, I. Ismail, and Z. Zainal, “Genes Induced by High Concentration of Salicylic Acid in Mitragyna Speciosa,” Australian Journal of Crop Science, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 296–303, 2011. Abstract
     Mitragyna speciosa is rich in secondary metabolites which are similar in effects as opium. Treatment with plant growth regulator such as salicylic acid (SA) is able to increase plant defense mechanism which later induces the expression of genes that encode secondary metabolite production. To identify genes that respond to elicitation of high concentration of SA, suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH) library was constructed using mRNA from SA-treated leaves and mRNA from non-SA-treated leaves. A total of 292 EST clones were randomly sequenced and all cleaned clone sequences (111) were analyzed using BLASTX against nonredundant NCBI databases. Results showed that most genes responding to acute SA treatment are related to stress and signaling pathways which eventually led to cell death. This include genes encoding chaperone, heatshock proteins (HSPs), antioxidants and genes involved in secondary metabolite biosynthesis, such as sinapyl alcohol dehydrogenase (SAD), cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase (CAD) and Cytochrome P450 (CYP 450). Further analysis was carried out using 8 out of 60 differentially expressed unique sequences through semi-quantitative RT-PCR on samples before and after treatment with 5 mM SA in 4 consecutive days. The result revealed that their expression changed over time when the plant was treated with 5 mM SA.
284. S. S. Jumali, I. M. Said, S. N. Baharum, I. Ismail, Z. A. Rahman, and Z. Zainal, “Molecular Cloning and Characterization of Strictosidine Synthase, a Key Gene in Biosynthesis of Mitragynine from Mitragyna Speciosa,” African Journal of Biotechnology, vol. 10, no. 68, pp. 15238–15244, 2011. doi: 10.4314/ajb.v10i68. Abstract
     Mitragynine is one of the most dominant indole alkaloids present in the leaves of Mitragyna speciosa, a species of Rubiaceae. This alkaloid is believed to be synthesized via condensation of the amino acid derivative, tryptamine and secologanine by the action of strictosidine synthase (STR). The cDNA clone encoding STR from M. speciosa was cloned through reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and denoted as StrMs1. The clone is a full-length cDNA with a size of 1257 bp, which contains an open reading frame of 1056 bp starting from base pair 18 to 1076. Sequence analysis showed that StrMs1 has high homology with other STRs of TIA-producing plants. Nucleotide sequence of StrMs1 was deposited in GenBank with accession number ADK91432. The deduced amino acid sequence has 352 residues with a predicted molecular weight of 39 kDa and isoelectric point at pH 5.78. Southern blot performed showed that there is only one copy of StrMs1 present in the genome of M. speciosa. Expression pattern on different tissues tested using RT-PCR revealed that besides leaf, the expression was also detected in root, stem and flower. Expression profiles under plant defense signal using salicylic acid (SA) was investigated on leaf tissues and the results showed that the transcript of StrMs1 were detected before and after treatment with salicylic acid. Result obtained from phylogenetic analysis suggested that StrMs1 is the most evolved protein among other STRs. However, the 3-D prediction of StrMs1 showed that there are alpha helices and beta propeller structures, which remain conserved withother STRs.Key word: Strictosidine synthase, Mitragyna speciosa, StrMs1, semiquantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), molecular evolution, protein prediction.
285. A. R. de C. Júnior et al., “13C-NMR Spectral Data of Alkaloids Isolated from Psychotria Species (Rubiaceae),” Molecules, 2017. doi: 10.3390/molecules22010103. Abstract
     This review aimed to compile 13C-NMR data of alkaloids isolated from the genus Psychotria as well as describe the main spectral features of different skeletons. The genus Psychotria (Rubiaceae) comprises more than 2000 species, mainly found in tropical and subtropical forests. Several studies have been conducted concerning their chemical compositions, showing that this genus is a potential source of alkaloids. At least 70 indole alkaloids have been identified from this genus so far. This review aimed to compile 13C-NMR data of alkaloids isolated from the genus Psychotria as well as describe the main spectral features of different skeletons.
286. J. Kahia, M. Kirika, H. Lubabali, and S. Mantell, “High-Frequency Direct Somatic Embryogenesis and Plantlet Regeneration from Leaves Derived from In Vitro-Germinated Seedlings of a Coffea Arabica Hybrid Cultivar,” HortScience, vol. 51, no. 9, pp. 1148–1152, Sep. 2016. doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI10771-16. Abstract
     Breeding work carried out during the period 1971–85 by the Coffee Research Institute, Ruiru, Kenya resulted in the release of a new improved hybrid Coffea arabica named Ruiru 11. The cultivar combines resistance to coffee berry disease (CBD) and leaf rust, with high yield and good cup quality attributes. The propagation by F\textsubscript1 hybrid seeds production, cuttings, and tip grafting do not produce enough planting materials. There was a need to explore alternative methods and tissue culture offers potential options. The objective of the study was to evaluate the effect of explant sources and cytokinins on induction and regeneration of somatic embryos. Eight different explants were cultured on half-strength Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 10 µm benzylaminopurine (BAP). The effect of kinetin, N⁶-(2-isopentyl) adenine (2iP) evaluated at (0, 0.5, 5, or 25 µm) or thidiazuron (TDZ) (0, 0.5, 1.0, or 5 µm) added in separate experiments was also evaluated. The percentage of embryogenic cultures and the numbers of embryos per explant were determined after 3 months’ culture. The explant type had a significant effect (P > 0.05) on the induction of somatic embryos. Explants from in vitro-germinated seedlings produced the highest embryogenic cultures (90%) and the highest mean number of embryos (19.36) per explant. Cytokinins strongly enhanced induction and regeneration of somatic embryos. TDZ at 1 µm produced the highest embryogenic cultures (100%) and the highest mean number of embryos (24.2). The embryos were germinated on half-strength MS medium without any hormones. A high (98%) survival rate of the regenerated plantlets was recorded over all the treatments in the greenhouse. This is the first report on induction of high-frequency direct somatic embryos from coffee juvenile tissues. This is of great significance in tissue culture and indeed molecular biology manipulations because it allows regeneration of coffee from several explants.
287. A. Katchborian-Neto et al., “Neuroprotective Potential of Ayahuasca and Untargeted Metabolomics Analyses: Applicability to Parkinson’s Disease,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 255, p. 112743, Jun. 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2020.112743. Abstract
     Ethnopharmacology relevance Ayahuasca is a tea produced through decoction of Amazonian plants. It has been used for centuries by indigenous people of South America. The beverage is considered to be an ethnomedicine, and it is traditionally used for the treatment of a wide range of diseases, including neurological illness. Besides, some scientific evidence suggests it may be applicable to Parkinson’s disease (PD) treatment. Thus, Ayahuasca deserves in depth studies to clarify its potential role in this disease. Aim of the study This study aimed to use an untargeted metabolomics approach to evaluate the neuroprotective potential of the Ayahuasca beverage, the extracts from its matrix plants (Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis), its fractions and its main alkaloids on the viability of SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells in an in vitro PD model. Material and methods The cytotoxicity of Ayahuasca, crude extracts, and fractions of B. caapi and P. viridis, as well as neuroprotection promoted by these samples in a 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced neurodegeneration model, were evaluated by the MTT assay at two time-points: 48 h (T1) and 72 h (T2). The main alkaloids from Ayahuasca matrix plants, harmine (HRE) and N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), were also isolated and evaluated. An untargeted metabolomics approach was developed to explore the chemical composition of samples with neuroprotective activity. Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled to Electrospray Ionisation and Time-of-Flight (UPLC-ESI-TOF) metabolome data was treated and further analysed using multivariate statistical analyses (MSA): principal component analysis (PCA) and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA). The metabolites were dereplicated using the Dictionary of Natural Products and an in house database. The main alkaloids were also quantified by UPLC-MS/MS. Results The samples did not cause cytotoxicity in vitro and three of samples intensely increased cell viability at T1. The crude extracts, alkaloid fractions and HRE demonstrated remarkable neuroprotective effect at T2 while the hydroalcoholic fractions demonstrated this neuroprotective effect at T1 and T2. Several compounds from different classes, such as β-carbolines and monoterpene indole alkaloids (MIAs) were revealed correlated with this property by MSA. Additionally, a total of 2419 compounds were detected in both ionisation modes. HRE showed potent neuroprotective action at 72 h, but it was not among the metabolites positively correlated with the most efficacious neuroprotective profile at either time (T1 and T2). Furthermore, DMT was statistically important to differentiate the dataset (VIP value > 1), although it did not exhibit sufficient neuroprotective activity by in vitro assay, neither a positive correlation with T1 and T2 neuroprotective profile, which corroborated the MSA results. Conclusion The lower doses of the active samples stimulated neuronal cell proliferation and/or displayed the most efficacious neuroprotection profile, namely by preventing neuronal damage and improving cell viability against 6-OHDA-induced toxicity. Intriguingly, the hydroalcoholic fractions exhibited enhanced neuroprotective effects when compared to other samples and isolated alkaloids. This finding corroborates the significance of a holistic approach. The results demonstrate that Ayahuasca and its base plants have potential applicability for PD treatment and to prevent its progression differently from current drugs to treat PD.
288. N. Khunnawutmanotham, N. Chimnoi, P. Nangkoed, A. Hasakunpaisarn, W. Wiwattanapaisarn, and S. Techasakul, “Facile Extraction of Three Main Indole Alkaloids from Mitragyna Speciosa by Using Hot Water,” ChemistrySelect, vol. 6, no. 38, pp. 10221–10225, 2021. doi: 10.1002/slct.202102590. Abstract
     The study presented a facile and efficient extraction method of main indole alkaloids from the fresh leaves of Mitragyna speciosa. A water extract containing three main indole alkaloids, namely mitragynine (MG), paynantheine (PT), and speciogynine (SG), was obtained by boiling the fresh leaves in water followed by partitioning with dichloromethane. The extraction yield of 1.0 % (w/w) was obtained under the optimized conditions. The contents of MG, PT, and SG obtained from water extraction were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography analysis and were found to be comparable to those obtained from methanol extraction. However, because the extraction yield obtained from using methanol was tenfold higher than that from using hot water, this indicated the presence of some undesirable materials in the methanol but not in water extract. This method provided an alkaloid-rich extract of M. speciosa. The procedure was easy to perform, inexpensive, environmentally benign, and could be easily scaled up from laboratory to industrial scale.
289. K. Khusnul, Suratno, N. I. Asyiah, and S. Hariyadi, “Analysis of the Effect of Several Types of Shade on the Productivity of Robusta Coffee,” vol. 1751, p. 012060, Jan. 2021. doi: 10.1088/1742-6596/1751/1/012060. Abstract
     Coffee is a commodity that plays an important role in economic activity and is Indonesia’s leading export which contributes to foreign exchange for the country. The coffee market opportunity is quite potential due to increased export demand and domestic consumption. But when viewed from the development of the number of coffee productivity per year has decreased every year. The decline in coffee productivity was caused by many factors, one of which was the coffee shade plant. The purpose of this study was to analyze the factors that influence the types of coffee shade plants so that they have an impact on the level of coffee productivity. This study used 25 farmers as respondents in Jember Regency and Banyuwangi Regency. Observations on one of the coffee plantations in the Jember area with four different types of shade. The research variables to be measured include biotic factors, abiotic factors and management and productivity of coffee. Data collection used interviews and direct observations on coffee plantations. The results of this study indicate that different types of shade plants have an effect on coffee productivity. The results of measurement of biotic and abiotic factors present in each shade mostly have different results. With different factor levels, it will affect coffee growth which will affect the number of coffee cherries produced so that each type of shade has a different amount of productivity. For one year Gliricidia sepium has an average productivity yield of 2500 kg / hectare, Carica papaya has an average productivity yield of 1000 kg / hectare, Tectona grandis has an average productivity yield of 700 kg / hectare, and Falacataria mollucana has an average productivity of 450 kg / acres. The conclusion of this study is the use of different shade plants affects coffee productivity.
290. M. Kitajima et al., “A New Indole Alkaloid, 7-Hydroxyspeciociliatine, from the Fruits of Malaysian Mitragyna Speciosa and Its Opioid Agonistic Activity,” Journal of Natural Medicines, vol. 60, no. 1, pp. 28–35, Jan. 2006. doi: 10.1007/s11418-005-0001-7. Abstract
     A new indole alkaloid, 7-hydroxyspeciociliatine (1), was isolated from the fruits of Malaysian Mitragyna speciosa Korth., together with 11 known indole and oxindole alkaloids (3–13). The structure of the new compound was determined by spectroscopic analysis and chemical conversion. The opioid agonistic activity of the new alkaloid was investigated in guinea-pig ileum experiments. The compound was found to have a weak stimulatory effect on μ-opioid receptors.
291. S. Knopp, G. Bytof, and D. Selmar, “Influence of Processing on the Content of Sugars in Green Arabica Coffee Beans,” European Food Research and Technology, vol. 223, no. 2, p. 195, Dec. 2005. doi: 10.1007/s00217-005-0172-1. Abstract
     Quantitative analyses of low molecular sugars in green coffees (Coffea arabica L. var. Acaià) that were processed in parallel either by the traditional wet or the traditional dry method, revealed a close correlation between the kind of post-harvest treatment and the contents of fructose and glucose. While in washed coffee beans (wet processing) only low amounts of these both hexoses were present, those in unwashed coffees (dry processing) were significantly higher. Model-processing experiments in the laboratory confirmed these findings. Moreover, a comparison with the untreated controls revealed that the low levels of both sugars are the consequence of a decrease in the case of wet processing, whereas they remained unchanged or even increased in the case of dry processing. Further minor sugars are also affected by post-harvest treatment. The amounts of galactose, arabinose and mannose show a similar arrangement as those for glucose and fructose, although their overall concentration is about 100-fold lower. Sucrose, the major low molecular sugar in green coffee beans, is not significantly affected by coffee processing. The influence of an active seed metabolism on the observed alterations of the sugar concentrations is discussed.
292. A. P. Kowalczuk, M. Kiljan, K. M. Trak, and J. K. Zjawiony, “APPLICATION OF CHEMOMETRICS FOR IDENTIFICATION OF PSYCHOACTIVE PLANTS.” Abstract
     Drug market changes dynamically causing many analytical challenges for police experts. Among illicit substances there are synthetic designer products but also herbal material. Plant material is usually in finecut or powdered form, thus difficult to identify. For such fragmented material classic taxonomical identification methods using anatomical and morphological features of the plant cannot be employed. The aim of the study was to develop an identification method of the powdered material with employment of multidimensional data analysis techniques. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was chosen as a method of data exploration. The study was conducted on four plants controlled in Poland: Salvia divinorum, Mitragyna speciosa, Psychotria viridis and Calea zacatechichi. The compatibility of grouping features of selected species was compared in two variants: chemical and elemental composition. In a first variant, GC-MS chromatograms of extracts were analyzed and in the second, elements composition with the AAS and the ICP-MS techniques. The GC-MS method, based on the qualitative interpretation of results, allows for clear differentiation of samples with regard to their species affiliation. Even the plants belonging to the same family Rubiaceae, P. viridis and M. speciosa formed homogeneous and clearly separated clusters. Additionally, the cluster analysis was performed, as a method confirming sample grouping.
293. A. P. Kowalczuk, A. Łozak, R. Bachliński, A. Duszyński, J. Sakowska, and J. K. Zjawiony, “Identification Challenges in Examination of Commercial Plant Material of Psychotria Viridis,” Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutica, vol. 72, no. 4, pp. 747–755, 2015 Jul-Aug. Abstract
     Psychoria viridis (chacruna) is a hallucinogenic plant with psychoactive properties associated with the presence of N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT). This species is primarily known as an ingredient of the beverage Ayahuasca, but dry leaves are also smoked by recreational users. The plant is controlled in Poland and France and its proper identification poses many challenges due to the fact that genus Psychotria is relatively large and there are other species that are easily confused with chacruna. The aim of the present work was to develop an effective authentication procedure for the dried and shredded leaves of P. viridis, to be used in comparison of chemical and botanical characteristics of its commercial products. Dried leaves of P. viridis originating from Brazil, Peru and Hawaii were purchased from Internet providers. For DMT identification, thin layer chromatography (TLC) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) methods have been elaborated, validated and applied. In order to clarify the existing differences among samples, chemometric methods have been used. Botanical features and the gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS) chromatograms have been analyzed using hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA). Our studies revealed significant variety among plant material marketed as P. viridis. Grouping of samples based on their micromorphology features and GC-MS results did not correspond well with the presence of DMT. Based on our results an indisputable identification of dried specimens as P. viridis is very problematic. It is necessary to postulate changes in legislation regarding regulation of P. viridis and replace it with DMT as controlled substance.
294. D. Kramer, B. Breitenstein, M. Kleinwächter, and D. Selmar, “Stress Metabolism in Green Coffee Beans (Coffea Arabica L.): Expression of Dehydrins and Accumulation of GABA during Drying,” Plant and Cell Physiology, vol. 51, no. 4, pp. 546–553, Apr. 2010. doi: 10.1093/pcp/pcq019. Abstract
     In order to produce tradeable standard green coffee, processed beans must be dried. The drying procedure affects the abundance of relevant aroma substances, e.g. carbohydrates. Using molecular tools, the corresponding metabolic basis is analyzed. A decrease in water potential of the still living coffee seeds induces massive drought stress responses. As a marker for these stress reactions, accumulation of a general stress metabolite, GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid), and associated gene expression of drought stress-associated dehydrins were monitored. The results of this study indicate that metabolism in drying coffee beans is quite complex since several events trigger accumulation of GABA. The first peak of GABA accumulation during drying is correlated with expression of isocitrate lyase and thus with ongoing germination processes in coffee seeds. Two subsequent peaks of GABA accumulation correspond to maxima of dehydrin gene expression and are thought to be induced directly by drought stress in the embryo and endosperm tissue, respectively. Apart from the significance for understanding basic seed physiology, metabolic changes in coffee seeds during processing provide valuable information for understanding the role and effect of the steps of green coffee processing on the quality of the resulting coffee.
295. S. Krishnan, T. A. Ranker, A. P. Davis, and J. J. Rakotomalala, “An Assessment of the Genetic Integrity of Ex Situ Germplasm Collections of Three Endangered Species of Coffea from Madagascar: Implications for the Management of Field Germplasm Collections,” Genetic resources and crop evolution, vol. 60, no. 3, pp. 1021–1036, 2013. doi: 10.1007/s10722-012-9898-3. Abstract
     Madagascar has 59 species of Coffea, of which 42 are listed as Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable by criteria of the Red List Category system of the World Conservation Union. In an attempt to assess the conservation value of ex situ collections of Malagasy coffee species, a study was undertaken using the field genebank collections maintained at the Kianjavato Coffee Research Station. Three species were selected for this purpose, C. kianjavatensis, C. montis-sacri, and C. vatovavyensis, and for comparative purposes extant, in situ populations of the same species were studied. Parentage analyses of ex situ propagated offspring of C. kianjavatensis and C. montis-sacri were performed to assess if crossing with other Coffea species maintained in the field genebank is compromising the genetic integrity of the collection. For these three species, higher genetic diversity was observed in the ex situ populations compared to the in situ populations, highlighting the importance of preserving the plants currently in ex situ collections. Parentage analyses of seed-propagated offspring of C. kianjavatensis and C. montis-sacri revealed that cross contamination with pollen from other Coffea species in the ex situ field genebank is occurring. These results have significant implications for the conservation management of wild Coffea species and for the management of ex situ genebanks.
296. S. Krishnan, “Current Status of Coffee Genetic Resources and Implications for Conservation,” CAB Reviews, vol. 8, no. 16, p. 9, 2013. doi: 10.1079/PAVSNNR20128016_2013. Abstract
     Coffee genetic resources are being lost at a rapid pace, leading to loss of genetic diversity. Some of the threats contributing to the erosion of coffee genetic diversity include human population pressures, which lead to conversion of land to agriculture, deforestation and land degradation; low coffee prices leading to abandoning of coffee trees in forests and gardens and shifting cultivation to other more remunerative crops; and global climate change. Conservation of coffee germplasm as seeds is not a viable option because of the recalcitrant/intermediate storage behaviour of seeds. Hence, development of a comprehensive conservation strategy for coffee should take into account complementary methods of in situ and ex situ conservations. The development of molecular techniques has expanded the possibilities and tools for genetic analysis for efficient conservation and use of coffee genetic resources. Before it is too late, a thorough evaluation of existing germplasm should be performed based on which a comprehensive conservation strategy can be developed.
297. A. C. Kruegel et al., “7-Hydroxymitragynine Is an Active Metabolite of Mitragynine and a Key Mediator of Its Analgesic Effects,” ACS Central Science, vol. 5, no. 6, pp. 992–1001, Jun. 2019. doi: 10.1021/acscentsci.9b00141. Abstract
     , Mitragyna speciosa, more commonly known as kratom, is a plant native to Southeast Asia, the leaves of which have been used traditionally as a stimulant, analgesic, and treatment for opioid addiction. Recently, growing use of the plant in the United States and concerns that kratom represents an uncontrolled drug with potential abuse liability, have highlighted the need for more careful study of its pharmacological activity. The major active alkaloid found in kratom, mitragynine, has been reported to have opioid agonist and analgesic activity in vitro and in animal models, consistent with the purported effects of kratom leaf in humans. However, preliminary research has provided some evidence that mitragynine and related compounds may act as atypical opioid agonists, inducing therapeutic effects such as analgesia, while limiting the negative side effects typical of classical opioids. Here we report evidence that an active metabolite plays an important role in mediating the analgesic effects of mitragynine. We find that mitragynine is converted in vitro in both mouse and human liver preparations to the much more potent mu-opioid receptor agonist 7-hydroxymitragynine and that this conversion is mediated by cytochrome P450 3A isoforms. Further, we show that 7-hydroxymitragynine is formed from mitragynine in mice and that brain concentrations of this metabolite are sufficient to explain most or all of the opioid-receptor-mediated analgesic activity of mitragynine. At the same time, mitragynine is found in the brains of mice at very high concentrations relative to its opioid receptor binding affinity, suggesting that it does not directly activate opioid receptors. The results presented here provide a metabolism-dependent mechanism for the analgesic effects of mitragynine and clarify the importance of route of administration for determining the activity of this compound. Further, they raise important questions about the interpretation of existing data on mitragynine and highlight critical areas for further research in animals and humans., Mitragynine is the major active alkaloid of Mitragyna speciosa (kratom). In mice, this compound is converted to an active metabolite, 7-hydroxymitragynine, which mediates its analgesic effect via the mu-opioid receptor.
298. A. C. Kruegel et al., “Synthetic and Receptor Signaling Explorations of the Mitragyna Alkaloids: Mitragynine as an Atypical Molecular Framework for Opioid Receptor Modulators,” Journal of the American Chemical Society, vol. 138, no. 21, pp. 6754–6764, Jun. 2016. doi: 10.1021/jacs.6b00360. Abstract
     Mu-opioid receptor agonists represent mainstays of pain management. However, the therapeutic use of these agents is associated with serious side effects, including potentially lethal respiratory depression. Accordingly, there is a longstanding interest in the development of new opioid analgesics with improved therapeutic profiles. The alkaloids of the Southeast Asian plant Mitragyna speciosa, represented by the prototypical member mitragynine, are an unusual class of opioid receptor modulators with distinct pharmacological properties. Here we describe the first receptor-level functional characterization of mitragynine and related natural alkaloids at the human mu-, kappa-, and delta-opioid receptors. These results show that mitragynine and the oxidized analogue 7-hydroxymitragynine, are partial agonists of the human mu-opioid receptor and competitive antagonists at the kappa- and delta-opioid receptors. We also show that mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine are G-protein-biased agonists of the mu-opioid receptor, which do not recruit β-arrestin following receptor activation. Therefore, the Mitragyna alkaloid scaffold represents a novel framework for the development of functionally biased opioid modulators, which may exhibit improved therapeutic profiles. Also presented is an enantioselective total synthesis of both (−)-mitragynine and its unnatural enantiomer, (+)-mitragynine, employing a proline-catalyzed Mannich–Michael reaction sequence as the key transformation. Pharmacological evaluation of (+)-mitragynine revealed its much weaker opioid activity. Likewise, the intermediates and chemical transformations developed in the total synthesis allowed the elucidation of previously unexplored structure–activity relationships (SAR) within the Mitragyna scaffold. Molecular docking studies, in combination with the observed chemical SAR, suggest that Mitragyna alkaloids adopt a binding pose at the mu-opioid receptor that is distinct from that of classical opioids.
299. J. Kuderko, “Ayahuasca: Propagating a Plant Teacher to Heal the World (A Guideline for Future Greenhouse Production of Psychotria Viridis),” Report, 2015. http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/175837. Abstract
     The purpose of this paper is to give a brief history of Ayahuasca and P. viridis Ruiz et. Pavon, present the currently known production methods, and provide insight into the future of P. viridis production. Since P.viridis has not been heavily researched, this may serve as an overview of future production. I hope this may be a helpful learning tool for anyone intrigued by the great mystery of Ayahuasca and anyone interested in legally producing Psychotria viridis in the future.
300. A. Kumar, P. S. Simmi, and P. Giridhar, “Cell Wall Remodelling Involving Galactomannan De-Branching Influence Agrobacterium Tumefaciens-Mediated Transformation of Coffea Canephora Somatic Embryos,” Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture (PCTOC), vol. 134, no. 3, pp. 369–382, 2018. doi: 10.1007/s11240-018-1428-3. Abstract
     Direct somatic embryogenesis is favoured over indirect methods for the in vitro propagation of Coffea canephora, as the frequency of somaclonal variation is usually reduced. Ethylene action inhibitors improve the tissue culture response and thus silver nitrate (AgNO3) is used for direct somatic embryogenesis in coffee. It was observed that silver thiosulphate (STS) that is a more potent ethylene action inhibitor, induced a much robust response in C. canephora cotyledonary leaf explants with 7.49\,± 0.57 and 7.08\,± 0.12 embryos/explant at 60 and 80 µM AgNO3, respectively compared to 3.3\,± 0.18 embryos/explant at 40 µM AgNO3. Transient transformation indicated that STS improved the transformation potential of embryos by enhancing Agrobacterium tumefaciens adherence to surfaces. In vitro adherence assays demonstrated that the cell wall material from STS-derived embryos provide a better substratum for adherence of Agrobacterium. Furthermore, blocking this substratum with anti-mannan hybridoma supernatant negatively effects the adherence. The presence of galactose and mannose residues in the decomposed cellulose fraction of STS treated somatic embryos are indicative of de-branching and re-modelling of galactomannan in response to ethylene inhibition. Genes of mannan biosynthesis, degradation and de-branching enzyme were affected to different extents in embryos derived in AgNO3 and STS containing somatic embryogenesis medium. The results indicate that ethylene-mediated cell wall galactomannan remodelling is vital for improving the transgenic potential in coffee.
301. V. Kumar, P. Giridhar, A. Chandrashekar, and G. A. Ravishankar, “Polyamines Influence Morphogenesis and Caffeine Biosynthesis in in Vitro Cultures of Coffea Canephora P. Ex Fr.,” Acta Physiologiae Plantarum, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 217–223, 2008. doi: 10.1007/s11738-007-0110-x. Abstract
     The influence of polyamines, polyamine inhibitors and ethylene inhibitors were tested in Coffea canephora for in vitro morphogenetic response and caffeine biosynthesis. Coffea canephora produced non-embryogenic and embryogenic calli. Somatic embryos were produced only from the embryogenic callus. Endogenous polyamine pools were estimated in these tissues. Somatic embryos were subjected to secondary embryogenesis under the influence of putrescine, silver nitrate and specific inhibitors of polyamine biosynthesis. Estimation of endogenous total polyamines revealed that embryogenic callus contained 11-fold more spermine and 3.3-fold higher spermidine when compared to non-embryogenic callus. Incorporation of polyamines resulted in 58% explant response for embryogenesis when compared to control with 42% response. Incorporation of silver nitrate resulted in 65% response for embryogenesis. Incorporation of polyamine biosynthetic pathway inhibitors DFMO and DFMA resulted in 83% reduction in embryogenic response with concomitant increase in caffeine levels by two-fold as compared to control. These results have clearly demonstrated that polyamines play a crucial role in embryogenesis and caffeine biosynthesis.
302. V. Kumar et al., “Stable Transformation and Direct Regeneration in Coffea Canephora P Ex. Fr. by Agrobacterium Rhizogenes Mediated Transformation without Hairy-Root Phenotype,” Plant Cell Reports, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 214–222, 2006. doi: 10.1007/s00299-005-0045-x. Abstract
     A system for genetic transformation of Coffea canephora by co-cultivation with Agrobacterium rhizogenes harbouring a binary vector has been developed. The objective of the present study was the genetic transformation and direct regeneration of transformants through secondary embryos bypassing an intervening hairy root stage. Transformants were obtained with a transformation efficiency up to 3% depending on the medium adjuvant used. A. rhizogenes strain A4 harbouring plasmid pCAMBIA 1301 with an intron uidA reporter and hygromycin phosphotransferase (hptII) marker gene was used for sonication-assisted transformation of Coffea canephora. The use of hygromycin in the secondary embryo induction medium allowed the selection of transgenic secondary embryos having Ri T-DNA along with the T-DNA from the pCAMBIA 1301 binary vector. In addition transgenic secondary embryos devoid of Ri-T-DNA but with stable integration of the T-DNA from the binary vector were obtained. The putative transformants were positive for the expression of the uidA gene. PCR and Southern blot analysis confirmed the independent, transgenic nature of the analysed plants and indicated single and multiple locus integrations. The study clearly demonstrates that A. rhizogenes can be used for delivering transgenes into tree species like Coffea using binary vectors with Agrobacterium tumefaciens T-DNA borders.
303. F. Kummrow, B. S. Maselli, R. Lanaro, J. L. Costa, G. A. Umbuzeiro, and A. Linardi, “Mutagenicity of Ayahuasca and Their Constituents to the Salmonella/Microsome Assay,” Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis, vol. 60, no. 3, pp. 269–276, 2019. doi: 10.1002/em.22263. Abstract
     Ayahuasca is a beverage used in religious rituals of indigenous and nonindigenous groups, and its therapeutic potential has been investigated. Ayahuasca is obtained by decoction of the Banisteriopsis caapi that contains β-carbolines (harmine, harmaline, and tetrahydroharmine) plus Psychotria viridis that contains N,N-dimethyltryptamine. Although plants used in folk medicine are recognized as safe, many of them have genotoxic potential. The Salmonella/microsome assay is usually the first line of the mutagenicity evaluation of products intended for therapeutic use. Our objective was to evaluate the mutagenicity of ayahuasca beverage and their constituents using the Salmonella/microsome assay with TA98 and TA100. We analyzed two ayahuasca samples, and also beverage samples prepared each individual plant P. viridis and B. caapi. Harmine and harmaline were also tested. All beverage samples were chemically characterized and both ayahuasca samples could be considered representative of the beverages consumed in religious rituals. Both ayahuasca samples were mutagenic for TA98 and TA100 with and without S9, with similar potencies. The beverage obtained from P. viridis was not mutagenic, and beverage obtained from B. caapi was mutagenic for TA98 with and without S9. Harmine was nonmutagenic and harmaline was mutagenic only for TA98 without S9. Harmaline fully explain the mutagenicity observed with TA98 without S9 of both ayahuasca samples and the B. caapi beverage samples. We conclude that the ayahuasca samples are mutagenic and this effect is partially explained by harmaline, one of the β-carbolines present in the beverage. Other mutagenic compounds seem to be present and need to be further investigated. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 60:269–276, 2019. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
304. G. A. Lacerda, A. Chalfun-Júnior, L. V. Paiva, E. F. Melo, A. C. S. de Oliveira, and J. C. de Rezende, “Effect of Plant Growth Regulators on Root Development in Coffea Arabica L. ’Rubi’ Seeds Grown in Vitro,” Coffee Science, vol. 3, no. 1, 2008. http://www.sbicafe.ufv.br/handle/123456789/5629. Abstract
     It was evaluated the effect of plant growth regulators in the root development in coffee seeds cv. Rubi (Coffea arabica L. Rubi ) grown in vitro. Coffee seeds from adult plants were established on medium MS/2 + sucrose (20 g L-1) + agar (6 g L-1). Four treatments were tested: T1 - control; T2 - BAP (6 mg L-1) + NAA (0,1 mg L-1); T3 - BAP (6 mg L-1); T4 - GA3 (5 mg L-1). The highest rooting response was observed on the control (MS/2 + agar + sucrose). This suggest that rooting can be achieved without the use of plant growth regulators.
305. R. Lanaro et al., “Kinetic Profile of N,N-Dimethyltryptamine and β-Carbolines in Saliva and Serum after Oral Administration of Ayahuasca in a Religious Context,” Drug Testing and Analysis, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 664–678, 2021. doi: 10.1002/dta.2955. Abstract
     Ayahuasca is a beverage obtained from Banisteriopsis caapi plus Psychotria viridis. B. caapi contains the β-carbolines harmine, harmaline, and tetrahydroharmine that are monoamine oxidase inhibitors and P. viridis contains N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) that is responsible for the visionary effects of the beverage. Ayahuasca use is becoming a global phenomenon, and the recreational use of DMT and similar alkaloids has also increased in recent years; such uncontrolled use can lead to severe intoxications. In this investigation, liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) was used to study the kinetics of alkaloids over a 24 h period in saliva and serum of 14 volunteers who consumed ayahuasca twice a month in a religious context. We compared the area under the curve (AUC), maximum concentration (Cmax), time to reach Cmax (Tmax), mean residence time (MRT), and half-life (t1/2), as well as the serum/saliva ratios of these parameters. DMT and β-carboline concentrations (Cmax) and AUC were higher in saliva than in serum and the MRT was 1.5–3.0 times higher in serum. A generalized estimation equations (GEEs) model suggested that serum concentrations could be predicted by saliva concentrations, despite large individual variability in the saliva and serum alkaloid concentrations. The possibility of using saliva as a biological matrix to detect DMT, β-carbolines, and their derivatives is very interesting because it allows fast noninvasive sample collection and could be useful for detecting similar alkaloids used recreationally that have considerable potential for intoxication.
306. R. B. Landey, “Influence of Micropropagation through Somatic Embryogenesis on Somaclonal Variation in Coffee (Coffea Arabica): Assessment of Variations at the Phenotypical, Cytological, Genetic and Epigenetic Level,” PhD thesis, Université Montpellier II-Sciences et Techniques du Languedoc, 2013. https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-01016417/. Abstract
     Influence of micropropagation through somatic embryogenesis on somaclonal variation in coffee (Coffea arabica): assessment of variations at the phenotypical, cytological, genetic and epigenetic level Somaclonal variation (SV) is a major concern in all micropropagation systems. It is described as the phenotypic variation displayed in in vitro-derived regenerants and it is believed to be originated from a large array of genetic and epigenetic mechanisms. Highly productive Coffea arabica hybrids are clonally disseminated in Meso-American region through somatic embryogenesis (SE). The objective of the present work in coffee is to evaluate the trueness-to-type of SE and to understand the mechanisms involved in SV. We assessed the variations in the propagated plants at the phenotypic, cytogenetic, genetic (mutations/AFLP, genetic transposition/S-SAP) and epigenetic (methylation/MSAP) level by using two complementary approaches. First, with 2 hybrids we studied industrial culture conditions expected to be weakly mutagenic thanks to the combined use of short term proliferation period (6 months) and low auxin supply (0-1.4 µM 2,4-D). Two proliferation systems i.e. secondary embryogenesis and embryogenic suspensions were compared, the latter being more productive and economic. AFLP and MSAP molecular analyses on 145 somatic seedlings showed that genetic and epigenetic polymorphisms between mother plants and emblings were extremely low, i.e. ranges of 0–0.003% and 0.07–0.18% respectively, with no significant difference between the proliferation systems. For the two hybrids tested, massive phenotypic observations in nursery and field plots showed very low levels of SV (0.9% from 800,000 plants). Cytological analysis showed abnormal chromosome numbers (41-43, 45) in most of coffee somaclonal variants and normal numbers (44) in phenotypically normal plants. Stressful experimental conditions were also applied by using extended proliferation periods (4, 12 and 27 months) for three independent embryogenic lines established for the Caturra var. in presence of high growth regulator concentrations (4.5 μM 2,4-D, 17.8 μM 6-BA) to understand the mechanisms of culture ageing on SV. The proliferation time strongly affected the SV frequency among the 180 regenerated plants and in a highly similar way with the three embryogenic lines. No variant was found after 4 months proliferation although 30% and 94% phenotypic variants were observed in plants derived from 12 and 27 month-old cultures, respectively. Regardless the culture age and the embryogenic line, no polymorphisms were found in the 124 plants analyzed and very limited methylation changes with MSAP markers (0.049-0.087%). However, similarly to plants derived from industrial conditions, phenotypic variants systematically showed abnormal chromosome numbers and normal plants systematically showed normal numbers. This work showed that SE based on embryogenic suspensions is reliable for true-to-type propagation of selected C. arabica varieties. It also demonstrated the importance of culture age on SV and hence the non random nature of this phenomenon. The genetic and epigenetic alterations are particularly limited during SE. The main change in most of phenotypic variants was aneuploidy showing that mitotic aberrations play a major role in SV in coffee.
307. P. Lashermes, P. Trouslot, F. Anthony, M. C. Combes, and A. Charrier, “Genetic Diversity for RAPD Markers between Cultivated and Wild Accessions of Coffea Arabica,” Euphytica, vol. 87, no. 1, pp. 59–64, Jan. 1996. doi: 10.1007/BF00022965. Abstract
     Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers have been successfully employed to analyse the genetic diversity among cultivated and subspontaneous accessions of Coffea arabica. The narrow genetic base of commercial cultivars was confirmed. On the other hand, a relatively large genetic diversity was observed within the germplasm collection demonstrating the importance of collecting missions. Results suggested an East-West differentiation in Ethiopia, the primary centre of diversification of C. arabica. The large heterosis effect reported in intergroup hybrids could be related to such genetic differentiation. RAPD method appeared to be effective in resolving genetic variations and in grouping germplasm in C. arabica.
308. B. G. Laviola, H. E. P. Martinez, and A. L. Mauri, “Influência do nível de adubação de plantas matrizes na formação de mudas de cafeeiros em sistema hidropônico,” Ciência e Agrotecnologia, vol. 31, pp. 1043–1047, Aug. 2007. doi: 10.1590/S1413-70542007000400015. Abstract
     Objetivou-se neste trabalho avaliar o desenvolvimento de mudas de quatro cultivares de cafeeiro arábico, originadas de sementes de plantas submetidas aos níveis de adubação baixo, adequado e alto, em sistema hidropônico com argila expandida. Utilizou-se, para este experimento, sementes de quatro cultivares de cafeeiro arábico (Catuaí, Rubi, Icatu e Acaiá), submetidos a três níveis de adubação. Os níveis baixo e alto de adubação receberam, respectivamente, 0,4 e 1,4 vezes a recomendação feita para o nível adequado. Após a coleta e preparo, as sementes foram germinadas em papel "germitest" e depois de 30 dias foram transplantadas para tubetes de 120 ml preenchidos com substrato comercial. O sistema hidropônico empregado foi de subirrigação com argila expandida (cinasita) onde foram fixados os tubetes. Utilizou-se ainda o delineamento de blocos casualizados em esquema fatorial 4 X 3 com 4 repetições e 7 plantas úteis por parcela. Assim que as plantas atingiram 5 a 6 pares de folhas foi medida a altura de plantas, o peso de matéria seca das folhas, caule e sistema radicular. Os resultados obtidos foram submetidos à análise de variância e as médias comparadas pelo teste de Duncan. Observou-se que o nível de adubação das plantas matrizes pouco influenciou no crescimento e desenvolvimento das mudas de cafeeiro, no sistema hidropônico. O sistema hidropônico proposto promoveu bom desenvolvimento das respectivas mudas de cafeeiro.
309. M. B. Leal and E. Elisabetsky, “Absence of Alkaloids in Psychotria Carthagenensis Jacq. (Rubiaceae),” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 54, no. 1, pp. 37–40, Oct. 1996. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(96)01448-1. Abstract
     Psychotria viridis and P. carthagenensis are often discussed in relation to the hallucinogenic beverage Ayahuasca, used for religious, medicinal and social purposes. The significance of including Psychotria species in this beverage has been understood on the basis of substantial amounts of tryptamine alkaloids detected on leaves of both P. viridis and P. carthagenensis. Nevertheless, there is a long lasting debate over the identification of which Psychotria species are actually traditionally employed. We here report that a P. carthagenensis leaf ethanol extract was found to be devoid of alkaloids. The extract significantly decreased mice body temperature (350 and 500 mg/kg). Toxicity assessment revealed that the extract induced sedation and slight ptoses (75% of animals treated with 1000 mg/kg). Lethality was not observed within 48 h. The data indicate that P. carthagenensis does have bioactive compound(s), possibly active at the central nervous system, but unlikely to be tryptamine alkaloids as in the case of P. viridis. Therefore, if P. carthagenensis is indeed used by ayahuasqueros, its chemical and pharmacological significance have yet to be elucidated.
310. M. B. Leal and E. Elisabetsky, “Absence of Alkaloids in Psychotria Carthagenensis Jacq. (Rubiaceae),” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 54, no. 1, pp. 37–40, Oct. 1996. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(96)01448-1. Abstract
     Psychotria viridis and P. carthagenensis are often discussed in relation to the hallucinogenic beverage Ayahuasca, used for religious, medicinal and social purposes. The significance of including Psychotria species in this beverage has been understood on the basis of substantial amounts of tryptamine alkaloids detected on leaves of both P. viridis and P. carthagenensis. Nevertheless, there is a long lasting debate over the identification of which Psychotria species are actually traditionally employed. We here report that a P. carthagenensis leaf ethanol extract was found to be devoid of alkaloids. The extract significantly decreased mice body temperature (350 and 500 mg/kg). Toxicity assessment revealed that the extract induced sedation and slight ptoses (75% of animals treated with 1000 mg/kg). Lethality was not observed within 48 h. The data indicate that P. carthagenensis does have bioactive compound(s), possibly active at the central nervous system, but unlikely to be tryptamine alkaloids as in the case of P. viridis. Therefore, if P. carthagenensis is indeed used by ayahuasqueros, its chemical and pharmacological significance have yet to be elucidated.
311. M. B. Leal and E. Elisabetsky, “Opioid-like Activity of Psychotria Brachypoda,” International Journal of Pharmacognosy, vol. 34, no. 4, pp. 267–272, Jan. 1996. doi: 10.1076/phbi.34.4.267.13221. Abstract
     Strong opioid-like analgesic activity has been detected in alkaloids from Psychotria colorata (Willd ex R. & S.) Muell. Arg., used by Amazonian caboclos of Brazil as a pain killer. The present work was undertaken to study Psychotria brachypoda (Muell. Arg.) Britton in regard to the presence of alkaloids and potential analgesic activity. The leaf ethanol extract is rich in alkaloids and was evaluated for analgesia (mouse tail-flick), effects on body temperature and acute toxicity. In the tail-flick test the extract was active in a dose-effect pattern (i.p. 350 mg/kg comparable to 6 mg/kg of morphine) and the activity was reversed by naloxone. The body temperature decreased significantly. Sedation, blepharoptosis, but not loss of righting reflex were observed in acute toxicity test. These results show that the ethanol extract of P. brachypoda is rich in alkaloids with opioid-like analgesic activity. These data indicate the pertinence of isolating these alkaloids and further characterizing their pharmacological profile. Psychotria alkaloids can be regarded as potential templates for new analgesic compounds.
312. N. Leksungnoen et al., “Variations in Mitragynine Content in the Naturally Growing Kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa) Population of Thailand,” Frontiers in Plant Science, vol. 13, p. 1028547, Oct. 2022. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2022.1028547. Abstract
     We analyzed the content of mitragynine (MG) found in kratom leaves (Mitragyna speciosa) and the influence of different environmental conditions (air and soil variables) on the yield in various regions of Thailand. The content of MG in kratom leaves ranged from 7.5 – 26.6 mg g-1 of dry leaf weight. Canonical correspondence analysis showed that the most significant environmental variables affecting the MG content among the various regions were light intensity, relative humidity, soil volumetric water content (VW), soil pH, and calcium. This study is a first step towards providing information about environmental conditions suitable to maximize the quality and quantity of bioactive alkaloids in kratom. Future studies should focus on leaf collection and the post-harvest processes in order to assure the desired alkaloidal content in finished products, when produced under suitable environmental conditions identified in this study.
313. F. Lemessa, A. Abera, G. Adunga, and W. Garedew, “Association of Mycoflora with Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Beans at Limmu Coffee Plantation, Southwestern Ethiopia,” Plant Pathology Journal, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 136–141, Jun. 2015. doi: 10.3923/ppj.2015.136.141. Abstract
     Coffee (Coffea arabica L.) bean quality can be affected by a number of factors of which storage fungi are one of the major ones. In Ethiopia coffee is a number one export commodity supporting the national economy but there was little information about the association of mycoflora with coffee beans. Therefore, the objective of this study was to assess the associations of mycoflora with coffee seeds and their effect on coffee infection at Limmu Coffee Plantation. The comparison was done using two coffee berry disease resistant selections (74112 and 74110) with and without parchment and with and without surface treatment of coffee beans with 5% sodium hypochlorite and storing under two storage conditions (local cold house and corrugated iron warehouse). Thus, the experiment was laid down as 2×2×2×2 factorial experiment with four replications. The study showed the association of four fungal species (Fusarium spp., Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp. and Mucor spp.) and some unidentified species in both blotting and agar plating techniques. In general, significantly higher infection percentage was found in coffee seeds without parchment and surface disinfection irrespective of the storage type and coffee selection. Thus, keeping coffee beans with parchment and disinfecting by disinfectants may reduce the association and prevalence of mycoflora on coffee and minimize postharvest problems.
314. F. León et al., “Activity of Mitragyna Speciosa (‘Kratom’) Alkaloids at Serotonin Receptors,” Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, vol. 64, no. 18, pp. 13510–13523, Sep. 2021. doi: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c00726. Abstract
     Kratom alkaloids have mostly been evaluated for their opioid activity but less at other targets that could contribute to their physiological effects. Here, we investigated the in vitro and in vivo activity of kratom alkaloids at serotonin receptors (5-HTRs). Paynantheine and speciogynine exhibited high affinity for 5-HT1ARs and 5-HT2BRs, unlike the principal kratom alkaloid mitragynine. Both alkaloids produced antinociceptive properties in rats via an opioid receptor-independent mechanism, and neither activated 5-HT2BRs in vitro. Paynantheine, speciogynine, and mitragynine induced lower lip retraction and antinociception in rats, effects blocked by a selective 5-HT1AR antagonist. In vitro functional assays revealed that the in vivo 5-HT1AR agonistic effects may be due to the metabolites 9-O-desmethylspeciogynine and 9-O-desmethylpaynantheine and not the parent compounds. Both metabolites did not activate 5-HT2BR, suggesting low inherent risk of causing valvulopathy. The 5-HT1AR agonism by kratom alkaloids may contribute to the mood-enhancing effects associated with kratom use.
315. F. León, E. Habib, J. E. Adkins, E. B. Furr, C. R. McCurdy, and S. J. Cutler, “Phytochemical Characterization of the Leaves of Mitragyna Speciosa Grown in USA,” Natural Product Communications, vol. 4, no. 7, p. 1934578X0900400, Jul. 2009. doi: 10.1177/1934578X0900400705. Abstract
     Mitragyna speciosa (Rubiaceae) has traditionally been used in the tropical regions of Asia, Africa and Indonesia as a substitute for opium. Indole alkaloids are the most common compounds that have been isolated. We investigated the constituents of the leaves of M. speciosa that was grown at the University of Mississippi. Several alkaloids were isolated, including ajmalicine, corynantheidine, isomitraphylline, mitraphylline, paynantheine, isocorynantheidine, 7-hydroxymitragynine and mitragynine, but their percentages were lower than those in a commercial Thai sample of “kratom”. In addition, we isolated the flavonoid epicatechin, a saponin daucosterol, the triterpenoid saponins quinovic acid 3-O-β-D-quinovopyranoside, quinovic acid 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, as well as several glycoside derivatives including 1-O-feruloyl-β-D-glucopyranoside, benzyl-βD-glucopyranoside, 3-oxo-α-ionyl-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, roseoside, vogeloside, and epivogeloside. This is the first report of the last group of compounds having been isolated from a Mitragyna species. Biological studies are currently underway to test these compounds for opioid activity.
316. A. D. Lesiak and R. A. Musah, “Application of Ambient Ionization High Resolution Mass Spectrometry to Determination of the Botanical Provenance of the Constituents of Psychoactive Drug Mixtures,” Forensic Science International, vol. 266, pp. 271–280, Sep. 2016. doi: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2016.06.009. Abstract
     A continuing challenge in analytical chemistry is species-level determination of the constituents of mixtures that are made of a combination of plant species. There is an added urgency to identify components in botanical mixtures that have mind altering properties, due to the increasing global abuse of combinations of such plants. Here we demonstrate the proof of principle that ambient ionization mass spectrometry, namely direct analysis in real time-high resolution mass spectrometry (DART-HRMS), and statistical analysis tools can be used to rapidly determine the individual components within a psychoactive brew (Ayahuasca) made from a mixture of botanicals. Five plant species used in Ayahuasca preparations were subjected to DART-HRMS analysis. The chemical fingerprint of each was reproducible but unique, thus enabling discrimination between them. The presence of important biomarkers, including N,N-dimethyltryptamine, harmaline and harmine, was confirmed using in-source collision-induced dissociation (CID). Six Ayahuasca brews made from combinations of various plant species were shown to possess a high level of similarity, despite having been made from different constituents. Nevertheless, the application of principal component analysis (PCA) was useful in distinguishing between each of the brews based on the botanical species used in the preparations. From a training set based on 900 individual analyses, three principal components covered 86.38% of the variance, and the leave-one-out cross validation was 98.88%. This is the first report of ambient ionization MS being successfully used for determination of the individual components of plant mixtures.
317. A. D. Lesiak, R. B. Cody, A. J. Dane, and R. A. Musah, “Rapid Detection by Direct Analysis in Real Time-Mass Spectrometry (DART-MS) of Psychoactive Plant Drugs of Abuse: The Case of Mitragyna Speciosa Aka ‘Kratom,’” Forensic Science International, vol. 242, pp. 210–218, Sep. 2014. doi: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.07.005. Abstract
     Mitragyna speciosa, also known commonly as “Kratom” or “Ketum”, is a plant with psychoactive properties that have been attributed to the presence of various indole alkaloids such as mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine. M. speciosa use is gaining popularity internationally as a natural and legal alternative to narcotics. As a drug of abuse, its detection and identification are not straightforward, since M. speciosa plant material is not particularly distinctive. Here, we show that direct analysis in real time-mass spectrometry (DART-MS) can be used not only to rapidly identify M. speciosa plant material and distinguish it from other plants, but also to distinguish between M. speciosa plant varieties, based on differences between their chemical profiles. The method is rapid and the analysis expeditious. Plant material such as that found at a crime scene can be analyzed directly with no sample pre-preparation steps. Furthermore, we show that the basis set of principal components that permit characterization of the plant material can be used to positively identify M. speciosa.
318. D. Lilia, N. Damiri, and M. Mulawarman, “Diversity of Contaminants Fungi in Coffee Beans Stored Using Polystyrene and Gunny Sacks in South OKU Regency (Indonesia),” Sriwijaya Journal of Environment, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 13–19, Sep. 2021. doi: 10.22135/sje.2021.6.2.13-19. Abstract
     Robusta coffee is a coffee type found in South OKU Regency in Indonesia, and its storage process is highly susceptible to the growth of various fungal species, including fungi that produce Ochratoxin A (OTA). Therefore, this study aims to examine the fungal contamination contained in storage using polystyrene and gunny sacks for 20 and 30 days. Data were obtained from surveys, interviews, and samples from 30 farmers which stored coffee beans using polystyrene and gunny sacks in May-July 2020. The results showed that the moisture content was higher in storage using gunny sacks than in polystyrene sacks, at 16.94 ± 0.878 % and 15.99 ± 1.33%, respectively. Furthermore, 16 fungal species were present in gunny sack storage, while 14 fungal species were observed in polystyrene sacks. The percentage of OTA-producing fungi A.niger and A.ochraceus in the two stores yielded 100% and 63.3%, respectively
319. S. M. P. Lima, R. M. Guimarães, J. A. Oliveira, and M. das G. G. C. Vieira, “Efeitos de tempos e temperaturas de condicionamento sobre a qualidade fisiológica de sementes de cafeeiro (Coffea arabica, L.) sob condições ideais e de estresse térmico,” Ciência e Agrotecnologia, vol. 28, pp. 506–514, Jun. 2004. doi: 10.1590/S1413-70542004000300004. Abstract
     Objetivou-se com a presente pesquisa estudar tempos e temperaturas mais adequadas para o condicionamento fisiológico e avaliar os efeitos desses tratamentos na germinação sob condições de estresse térmico, de sementes de cafeeiro armazenadas. O estudo foi conduzido nos Laboratórios de Análise de Sementes e Técnicas Moleculares do Departamento de Agricultura da Universidade Federal de Lavras, utilizando-se sementes de café da cultivar Acaiá do cerrado. As sementes foram colhidas nos campos de produção da UFLA e armazenadas em condições de ambiente de agosto/2000 a janeiro/2001, quando foram submetidas ao condicionamento em água nas temperaturas de 15, 25 e 35ºC por 4, 8 12 dias de embebição. O condicionamento foi realizado em câmara tipo BOD, na presença de luz, e a aeração foi feita com compressores e bombas de aquário. Após cada tratamento, as sementes foram imediatamente submetidas à determinação do teor de água e avaliadas pelos testes de germinação e índice de velocidade de germinação sob estresse térmico (20 e 35ºC) e eletroforese de enzimas. Para comparação, foram utilizadas sementes sem tratamento de embebição. Pelos resultados, conclui-se que as sementes condicionadas em água a 15 e 25ºC apresentaram melhor desempenho da germinação em condições de estresse térmico; o condicionamento a 35ºC não foi apropriado; o condicionamento por 4 dias foi o menos eficiente em melhorar a qualidade fisiológica das sementes, e o condicionamento fisiológico em água mostrou-se eficaz ao revigoramento, principalmente a 25ºC por 12 dias.
320. A. L. S. Lima, F. M. DaMatta, H. A. Pinheiro, M. R. Totola, and M. E. Loureiro, “Photochemical Responses and Oxidative Stress in Two Clones of Coffea Canephora under Water Deficit Conditions,” Environmental and Experimental Botany, vol. 47, no. 3, pp. 239–247, May 2002. doi: 10.1016/S0098-8472(01)00130-7. Abstract
     The effects of water deficit on photochemical parameters and activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX), as well as, cellular damages were investigated in two clones of Coffea canephora differing in drought tolerance. After 6 days without irrigation, predawn leaf water potential fell to −3.0 MPa that was accompanied by the suppression of net photosynthesis in both clones. The variable to maximum chlorophyll fluorescence ratio remained unchanged regardless of the imposed treatments. Both clones showed a similar decline (about 25%) in the photochemical quenching coefficient, but only the drought-sensitive clone exhibited an enhancement (31%) of thermal deactivation under water deficit conditions. The quantum yield of electron transport decreased similarly in both genotypes. Under drought conditions, activities of SOD, CAT and APX increased to a greater extent in the drought-tolerant clone than in the drought-sensitive one. This seemed to be matched with higher protection against oxidative stress, as judged from the lower levels of lipid peroxidation and electrolyte leakage in the drought-tolerant clone. Thus, the ability to increase the antioxidant system activity in order to limit cellular damages might be an important attribute linked to the drought tolerance in C. canephora.
321. X. Liu, F. Li, Y. Zhang, and Q. Yang, “Effects of Deficit Irrigation on Yield and Nutritional Quality of Arabica Coffee (Coffea Arabica) under Different N Rates in Dry and Hot Region of Southwest China,” Agricultural Water Management, vol. 172, pp. 1–8, Jul. 2016. doi: 10.1016/j.agwat.2016.04.007. Abstract
     The objective of this study was to obtain water and nitrogen (N) management mode for water saving, high quality and proper yield of Arabica coffee in dry and hot region of southwest China. Taking full irrigation (FI) as the control, the effects of three deficit irrigation (DI) levels (DI80, DI60 and DI40, with irrigation amount of 80, 60 and 40% FI, respectively) in dry season on growth, yield, nutritional quality and water use efficiency (WUE) of Arabica coffee were investigated under three N rates (NH: 140, NM: 100 and NL: 60gN plant−1) using field experiments from 2013 to 2015, and the comprehensive benefit of yield and nutritional quality was evaluated using the technique for ordering preferences by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) method. Compared with FI, DI80 increased two-year averaged contents of protein, crude fat and chlorogenic acid in dry bean by 9.4, 26.0 and 12.5%, respectively, but reduced dry bean yield by 6.4%. DI60 and DI40 reduced dry bean yield and water use efficiency (WUE) greatly, but increased the contents of caffeine and crude fiber in dry bean. Compared with NL, enhancing N rate increased dry bean yield, WUE, and the contents of protein and chlorogenic acid in dry bean by 32.9–42.6, 32.1–45.4, 5.9–9.7 and 7.0–12.6%, respectively, and NM level had the largest dry bean yield, WUE and chlorogenic acid content in dry bean. FINM treatment had the largest two-year averaged dry bean yield of 5587.42kgha−1 and 31.8% higher than FINL treatment. DI80NH treatment had the best comprehensive benefit of yield and nutritional quality. Compared with FINL treatment, DI80NH treatment increased two-year averaged dry bean yield, WUE and the contents of protein and chlorogenic acid by 29.5, 42.7, 19.3 and 20.0%, respectively. Thus the treatment of high N (140g plant−1) and moderate deficit irrigation (irrigation amount was 80% of FI) was the suitable mode of water and nitrogen management for Arabica coffee, which could realize water-saving, high quality and proper yield of Arabica coffee simultaneously in the dry and hot region of southwest China.
322. L. Liu et al., “A Potent Antibacterial Indole Alkaloid from Psychotria Pilifera,” Journal of Asian Natural Products Research, vol. 18, no. 8, pp. 798–803, Aug. 2016. doi: 10.1080/10286020.2016.1158710. Abstract
     A new strychnine alkaloid, 16,17,19,20–tetrahydro–2,16–dehydro–18–deoxyisostrychnine (1), and fourteen known alkaloids were isolated from the leaves of Psychotria pilifera. Their structures were identified on the basis of extensive spectroscopic analysis, as well as by comparison with the reported spectroscopic data. The new alkaloid (1) exhibited potent antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, equivalent to cefotaxime with MIC value of 0.781 μg/ml.
323. N. Liu, S. Zhang, Y. Huang, H. Cai, and X. Zhu, “Understory and Canopy Additions of Nitrogen Differentially Affect Carbon and Nitrogen Metabolism of Psychotria Rubra in an Evergreen Broad-Leaved Forest,” Science of The Total Environment, vol. 724, p. 138183, Jul. 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138183. Abstract
     To assess the effects of nitrogen deposition on forest plants, researchers have conducted many nitrogen-addition experiments. Most of these experiments, however, failed to fully simulate atmospheric nitrogen deposition because they failed to assess interception of nitrogen deposition by the forest canopy. Here, we used transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics to compare the effects of understory nitrogen addition (UAN), canopy nitrogen addition (CAN), and a control (no nitrogen addition) on carbon and nitrogen metabolism in leaves of Psychotria rubra, a dominant subtropical understory plant species in evergreen broad-leaved forests in South China. We first established a reference P. rubra transcriptome via RNA-seq and obtained a total of 93,986 unigenes from de novo assembly. Next, we quantitatively investigated the proteome and metabolome in leaves, and identified 4021 proteins and 562 metabolites. Under the CAN treatment and relative to the control, 36 genes were up-regulated and 23 were down-regulated, and we identified 46 up-regulated proteins and 49 down-regulated proteins. Under the UAN treatment and relative to the control, 1525 genes were up-regulated and 224 genes down-regulated, and we identified 35 up-regulated proteins and 71 down-regulated proteins. These differentially expressed genes and proteins were related to photosynthesis, amino acid metabolism, and flavonoid biosynthesis. Accordingly, 15 differentially accumulated metabolites in response to CAN and 20 in response to UAN were found; these differentially accumulated metabolites included 4 amino acids and 3 flavonoids. Taken together, our results show that the UAN treatment had a greater effect on photosynthesis, amino acid metabolism, and flavonoid biosynthesis than the CAN treatment. Most importantly, the results indicate that understory application of nitrogen in experiments may incorrectly estimate the effects of nitrogen deposition on nitrogen and carbon utilization by P. rubra and perhaps by other understory woody plants in the evergreen broad-leaved forests in South China as well.
324. D. R. Loero and K. D. Kobayashi, “A Model for Estimating the Yield of Coffee (Coffea Arabica),” HortScience, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 836F–836, Jul. 1995. doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.30.4.836F. Abstract
     Nine years of historical yield, meteorological, and soil data were input into a soil water balance simulation model to generate a daily soil water status value. The values for the number of days and millimeters of deficit (duration and magnitude) were grouped into trimesters and used to estimate yield. The greatest frequency of days with plant moisture stress occurred during the January–March and the October–December periods. The greatest magnitude of stress occurred during the January–March period. Annual coffee yields were best estimated by the model that incorporated variables for the previous year including, April–June deficit magnitude duration, July–September deficit magnitude duration, and the previous year’s yield. Model testing with data from nine cultivars over an 8-year period showed that the model estimated yields with a mean error of 17%. The use of this model permitted yield estimation 2 months before anthesis and 8 months before the start of harvest.
325. S. O. Lopes, P. R. H. Moreno, and A. T. Henriques, “Growth Characteristics and Chemical Analysis of Psychotria Carthagenensis Cell Suspension Cultures,” Enzyme and Microbial Technology, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 259–264, Feb. 2000. doi: 10.1016/S0141-0229(99)00148-9. Abstract
     Callus and cell suspension cultures of Psychotria carthagenensis have been established in Gamborg’s B5 medium supplemented, respectively, with 3% sucrose, 0.2 mg/l kinetin, and 1.0 mg/l 2,4-d and 2% sucrose, 2.0 mg/l 2,4-d, 0.2 mg/l kinetin, and 50 mg/l cysteine. Suspension culture presented a typical growth curve with the complete cycle of ca. 18 days and the maximum specific growth rate (μ) was 0.0099 day. The presence of different secondary metabolite pathways was determined by measuring the enzyme activity of phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), tryptophan decarboxylase (TDC), strictosidine synthase (STR), strictosidine-β-glucosidase (SG), and geraniol-10-hydroxylase (G10H). Activity could only be measured for SG (14.55 pkatal/mg protein) and G10H (0.3 pkatal/mg protein). Analysis of extracts from leaves, callus and cell suspension cultures demonstrated the presence of two major triterpenes: β-sitosterol and ursolic acid.2
326. D. de C. Lopes and A. J. Steidle Neto, “Modelling the Dry Matter Loss of Coffee Beans under Different Storage Conditions,” Journal of Stored Products Research, vol. 88, p. 101669, Sep. 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.jspr.2020.101669. Abstract
     Coffee is an important agricultural commodity worldwide. Its quality is influenced by several factors that can damage kernels, changing the product composition, flavor, appearance, and causing weight loss. Mathematical models for estimating the dry matter loss of coffee were not found in scientific literature. This study deals with the calibration and validation of a model for predicting the dry matter loss of coffee beans under different storage times, temperatures and moisture contents. For this, green parchment grain of Coffea arabica (cv Catuaí Vermelho) were used. Measured dry matter losses varied from 0 to 1.2% and the proposed model was accurate when comparing experimental and predicted data (99.8%). Mean bias, absolute and relative errors were −0.001%, 0.026% and 13.6%, respectively, while the root mean square error was 0.066%, evidencing low scattering and high precision. The estimated maximum allowable storage times of coffee beans, based on a 0.5 dry matter loss threshold, varied from 9 years (for temperature and moisture content of 15 °C and 14% d.b.) to 2 days (for temperature and moisture content of 35 °C and 22% d.b.). The proposed model can be easily implemented in computer programs, appearing as an important tool when simulating the drying or aeration processes, as well as for helping in decision making for coffee storage and trading.
327. F. J. López-García and J. G. Cruz-Castillo, “Yield of Coffea Arabica Grafted onto Coffea Canephora in Soils Infested with Nematodes in Mexico,” Coffee Science, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 308–314, 2019. doi: 10.25186/cs.v14i3. Abstract
     The total of three consecutive years of fruit production was evaluated in six coffee cultivars (Coffea arabica L.) propagated by seed and grafted onto Robusta (Coffea canephora var. Robusta). The plantations were established at 640 m, 920 m, and 1340 m altitude in the central region of the Veracruz State, Mexico. The coffea plants were established in soils naturally infested with nematodes. Grafted plants had higher production than those propagated by seed. Fruit production was higher at 640 m and 920 m than at 1340 m for the two types of propagation. The cultivars Colombia Brote Café and Colombia Brote Verde had the highest fruit yield regardless of the propagation methods; in contrast, Pacamara, had the lowest. The grafted coffee plants that were planted at 1340 m had a yield reduction of 27% in comparison with those at 640 and 920 m. When the Costa Rica 95 variety was grafted, it achieved fruit yield similar to Colombia Brote Verde and Colombia Brote Café. Pacamara produced almost 28% more fruit when it was grafted onto Robusta.
328. D. Lorence and J. D. Dwyer, “Nuevos Taxa En Especies Mexicanas de Psychotria (Rubiaceae, Psychotrieae),” 2017. doi: 10.17129/BOTSCI.1331. Abstract
     Six new taxa in Psychotria subgenus Heteropsychotria are described from Mexico: P. faxlucens Lorence & Dwyer, P. oaxacana Lorence, L. izabalensis L. subsp. Six new taxa in Psychotria subgenus Heteropsychotria are described from Mexico: P. faxlucens Lorence & Dwyer, P. izabalensis L. Wms. subsp. oaxacana Lorence, P. luteotuba Lorence, P. megalantha Lorence, P. sousae Lorence, and P. veracruzensis Lorence & Dwyer.
329. D. H. Lorence, J. Florence, and J.-Y. Meyer, “Reassessment of the Psychotria Speciosa G. Forst. (Rubiaceae) Complex in Tahiti, Society Islands, with a New Combination and Description of New Species, Psychotria Paulae J.-Y. Meyer, Lorence & J. Florence, Sp. Nov.,” Adansonia, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 41–53, Jun. 2017. doi: 10.5252/a2017n1a4. Abstract
     The genus Psychotria L. (Rubiaceae) is one of the most diverse in the Pacific, including the islands of French Polynesia with 28 described endemic species. The Psychotria speciosa G. Forst. complex is evaluated, and P. speciosa is lectotypified and an epitype designated. The new combination Psychotria trichocalyx (Drake) Fosberg ex J.-Y. Meyer, Lorence & J. Florence, comb. nov., is made based on Calycosia (Uragoga) trichocalyx. The new species Psychotria paulae J.-Y. Meyer, Lorence & J. Florence, sp. nov., endemic to Tahiti (Society Islands), is described and illustrated. It differs from the closely related Psychotria speciosa by having leaves with longer petioles (up to 5 cm long), flowers fewer per inflorescence (1–3) and with longer pedicels up to 15 mm long, calyx with longer tube and short lobes, a 5–7-lobed corolla, longer fruit pedicels up to 4 cm long, and cylindrical to ovoid fruits 2–3 cm long. The conservation of this extremely rare species, known from only one locality on Tahiti and directly threatened by invasive alien plants (proposed IUCN status: CR), is a priority.
330. E. R. Lorenzetti et al., “Effect of Temperature and Leaf Wetness on Phoma Tarda and Phoma Leaf Spot in Coffee Seedlings,” Coffee Science - ISSN 1984-3909, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 1–9, Feb. 2015. http://www.coffeescience.ufla.br/index.php/Coffeescience/article/view/688. Abstract
     Phoma leaf spot is a major disease of coffee plants in regions with specific conditions of temperature and humidity. Despite the importance of environmental variables for disease progression, so far they have been poorly understood. Thus, we assessed the effect of different temperatures (15, 20, 25 and 30 oC) on mycelial growth, production and germination of conidia of Phoma tarda; and the same effect of temperature (15, 20, 25 and 30 oC) and leaf wetness duration (6, 12, 24, 36 and 48 hours) on fungal infection and severity of disease over time in coffee plants. Disease assessment was integrated in the area using the disease progress curve (AUDPC) and the infection processes were observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The optimal temperatures for fungus growth, conidial production and germination in vitro were 22.9, 29.8, and 25.1 °C, respectively. Temperatures ranging from 15-20 °C significantly increased germ tube length and provided favorable conditions for pathogen infection through observation of early events such as cuticle separation from leaf tissue. The same temperature range combined with increasing leaf wetness periods, reached the highest value of the AUDPC of phoma leaf spot. Thus, it was found that both temperature and leaf wetness duration in the variables assessed and the difference in relation to temperature for in vitro growth and sporulation for in vivo tests were important.
331. V. M. Loyola-Vargas, J. R. Avilez-Montalvo, R. N. Avilés-Montalvo, R. E. Márquez-López, R. M. Galaz-Ávalos, and E. Mellado-Mojica, “Somatic Embryogenesis in Coffea Spp.,” in Somatic Embryogenesis: Fundamental Aspects and Applications, Springer, 2016, pp. 241–266. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-33705-0_15. Abstract
     Coffee is a very important commodity in the world. It is a perennial plant and as a consequence its genetic improvement had been difficult. The biotechnology, in particular somatic embryogenesis (SE) has helped to the propagation of commercial coffee cultivars. Along almost 50 years, different research groups around the world have developed uncountable SE processes to produce an efficient, reproducible, and reliable SE process. Many of the factors that affect the embryogenic response have been studied. It has been demonstrated that the genetic modification of coffee is possible. This transformation can lead to the improvement of varieties with very attractive agronomic traits, such as low caffeine content, resistant to diseases and pests.
332. Q. Lu, J. Wang, and L. Kong, “Chemical Constituents from Psychotria Yunnanensis and Its Chemotaxonomic Study,” Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, vol. 52, pp. 20–22, Feb. 2014. doi: 10.1016/j.bse.2013.11.002. Abstract
     Phytochemical investigation on the aerial parts of Psychotria yunnanensis led to the isolation of four norisoprenoids (1–4), one monoterpenoid (5), and eleven phenolic compounds (6–16). To our knowledge, all compounds were isolated from this plant for the first time. Compounds 2–16 were reported for the first time from the genus Psychotria. The chemotaxonomic significances of these compounds were summarized.
333. A. H. Lubabali, A. E. Alakonya, E. K. Gichuru, J. W. Kahia, and R. N. Mayoli, “In Vitro Propagation of the New Disease Resistant Coffea Arabica Variety, Batia,” African Journal of Biotechnology, vol. 13, no. 24, pp. 2414–2419, 2014. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajb/article/view/120783. Abstract
     Batian is a true breeding commercial coffee variety that was released in Kenya in 2010. It is resistant to coffee berry disease and coffee leaf rust which are the main coffee diseases in Kenya. Coupled with early ripening, good beverage quality and high yields, demand for planting material has surpassed supply. Conventional propagation methods do not provide enough planting materials, hence the need to develop alternative methods. The objective of this study was to develop an effective in vitro protocol for propagating the coffee variety, Batian. Leaf explants were harvested and cultured on Murashige and Skoog (MS) media supplemented with different concentrations of cytokinins benzyl amino purine (BAP) and thidiazuron (TDZ) separately, 100 mg/l myo-inositol 3% sucrose and gelled with 0.3% gelrite. The results show differences among cytokinins levels in induction of somatic embryos. BAP at 13.3 µM gave the highest mean of embryos per explants, 6.06 ± 1.18 and highest percentage of embryogenic cultures of 58.33%. Development of somatic embryos was achieved on hormone free MS media with highest mean length of 0.32 ± 0.03 mm. Indole butyric acid at 9.8 µM was best for induction of a well-developed root system with a mean length of 1.22 ± 0.09 mm. This protocol opens new prospects for massive propagation of Batian in nine months.
334. L. S. Machado et al., “Efficiency and Response of Conilon Coffee Genotypes to Nitrogen Supply,” African Journal of Biotechnology, vol. 15, no. 35, pp. 1892–1898, Sep. 2016. doi: 10.4314/ajb.v15i35. Abstract
     The objective of the study was to differentiate genotypes with higher efficiency and responsiveness to nitrogen supply, to understand how the nitrogen supply can impact the dry matter allocation and the accumulation of this nutrient in the different plant compartments of genotypes of conilon coffee, cultivated under contrasting conditions of nitrogen availability in the soil. The plants were cultivated during 150 days in pots containing 10 kg of soil, in greenhouse. The experiment was set up in a 13×2 factorial scheme, following a completely randomized design (CRD) with three replications. The factors were: 13 genotypes and two levels of nitrogen fertilization (0 and 100% of the N recommended level). The N supply increased between 70 and 210% of the total dry matter and between 360 and 680% of the concentration of N content in leaves of the genotypes of conilon coffee. It was possible to observe that the expression of the genotypes was modulated by the availability of N in the soil, since they presented different behaviors in the studied environments (with 0 or 100% of N supply in the soil). The genotypes CV-03, CV-07 and CV-08 were classified as non-efficient and non-responsive, while the genotypes CV- 01, CV-04 and CV-09 of conilon coffee were classified as efficient and responsive.Keywords: Alpha parameter, Coffea canephora (Pierre ex A. Froehner), mineral nutrition
335. Y. V. da S. Magedans, K. C. da S. Rodrigues-Corrêa, C. T. da Costa, H. N. Matsuura, and A. G. Fett-Neto, “Sustainable Production of Bioactive Alkaloids in Psychotria L. of Southern Brazil: Propagation and Elicitation Strategies,” Acta Botanica Brasilica, vol. 33, pp. 607–617, Oct. 2019. doi: 10.1590/0102-33062019abb0114. Abstract
     ABSTRACT Psychotria is the largest genus in Rubiaceae. South American species of the genus are promising sources of natural products, mostly due to bioactive monoterpene indole alkaloids they accumulate. These alkaloids can have analgesic, antimutagenic, and antioxidant activities in different experimental models, among other pharmacological properties of interest. Propagation of genotypes with relevant pharmaceutical interest is important for obtaining natural products in a sustainable and standardized fashion. Besides the clonal propagation of elite individuals, the alkaloid content of Psychotria spp. can also be increased by applying moderate stressors or stress-signaling molecules. This review explores advances in research on methods for plant propagation and elicitation techniques for obtaining bioactive alkaloids from Psychotria spp. of the South Region of Brazil.
336. S. Mahadevakumar and G. R. Janardhana, “Morphological and Molecular Characterization of Sclerotium Rolfsii Associated with Leaf Blight Disease of Psychotria Nervosa (Wild Coffee),” Journal of Plant Pathology, vol. 98, no. 2, pp. 351–354, Jul. 2016. doi: 10.4454/JPP.V98I2.033. Abstract
     Psychotria nervosa (Rubiaceae), commonly known as wild coffee was found affected by leaf blight disease in the forest regions of Mysore, Madikeri and Hassan districts of Karnataka state (India). Characteristic leaf blight symptoms were observed at the centre of leaf lamina of basal leaves and tiny sclerotial bodies entangled in mycelia were prominent on the adaxial leaf surface. The associated fungal pathogen was isolated and identified as Sclerotium rolfsii on the basis of morphological characters and sequence analysis of ITS region of rDNA. The sequences shared 100% similarity with reliable sequence of S. rolfsii retrieved from GenBank. The detached leaf assay produced leaf blight symptoms seven days after inoculation. S. rolfsii known to infects a wide range of host plants including forest tree species. This is the first report of S. rolfsii causing leaf blight disease of wild coffee in India.
337. S. Malau, A. Siagian, B. Sirait, and H. Ambarita, “Germination Performance of Coffea Arabica L. Genotypes from Different Altitude, Precipitation and Temperature of Seeds Producing Farms in Sumatera Utara of Indonesia,” IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, vol. 205, p. 012013, Dec. 2018. doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/205/1/012013. Abstract
     Genotypes of Arabica coffee could perform different ability in seed germination. Biochemical contents of seeds could influence germination ability of seeds. Many studies reported that environment of seed producing site such as altitude, precipitation and temperature could affect amount of biochemical contents of seeds. However, germination ability of seeds of arabica coffee growing in different altitude and different climate zones of Sumatera Utara was not yet investigated. This research tested the effect of genotypes and these factors. Seven genotypes from seven different climate zones in seven districts of Sumatera Utara were tested for germination ability using randomized complete block design. The result showed that genotypes were significantly (a = 0.05) and highly significantly different (a = 0.01) in number of days to reach 80 % germination, percentage of germination, height of cotyledon, and height of the first leaf. Number of days to reach 80 % germination showed a significant negative correlation (r = -0.930**) with percentage of germination but a significant positive correlation (r = 0.759*) with altitude of farms. It could be concluded that Arabica coffee genotypes affected seed germination ability. Seed germination ability was more affected by elevation of seed producing location rather than by precipitation and temperature.
338. M. P. Maluf, M. Silvestrini, L. M. de C. Ruggiero, O. Guerreiro Filho, and C. A. Colombo, “Genetic Diversity of Cultivated Coffea Arabica Inbred Lines Assessed by RAPD, AFLP and SSR Marker Systems,” Scientia Agricola, vol. 62, pp. 366–373, Aug. 2005. doi: 10.1590/S0103-90162005000400010. Abstract
     One of the greatest problems in Coffea arabica breeding is identifying precisely any inbred line, based only on botanical and agronomical descriptors, because of the reduced genetic variability of the species, close pedigree origin, which results in small phenotypic variation. Recently, molecular markers have been used for plant germplasm characterization and identification in several commercial species. This work evaluates the reliability of three marker systems: RAPD, AFLP and SSR, to characterize the genetic variability of commercially-used Coffea inbred lines developed by the Instituto Agronômico (IAC), and their potential for cultivar identification. All methods identified polymorphisms among the cultivars. The genetic diversity recognized by the methods is very similar, although is very narrow. RAPD and SSR marker systems grouped more efficiently the evaluated cultivars according to parental origin. None of the methods allowed inbred line identification. Therefore for varietal protection, it would be necessary using a combination of botanical, agronomical and molecular markers descriptors for precise cultivar identification.
339. P. K. Manwill et al., “Kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa) Validation: Quantitative Analysis of Indole and Oxindole Alkaloids Reveals Chemotypes of Plants and Products,” Planta Medica, Apr. 2022. doi: 10.1055/a-1795-5876. Abstract
     Many consumers are turning to kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) to self-manage pain and opioid addiction. In the United States, an array of capsules, powders, and loose-leaf kratom products are readily available. Additionally, several online sites supply live kratom plants. A prerequisite to establishing quality control and quality assurance standards for the kratom industry, or understanding how alkaloid levels effect clinical outcomes, is the identification and quantitation of major and minor alkaloid constituents within available products and preparations. To this end, an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry method was developed for the analysis of 8 indole alkaloids (7-hydroxymitragynine, ajmalicine, paynantheine, mitragynine, speciogynine, isopaynantheine, speciociliatine, and mitraciliatine) and 6 oxindole alkaloids (isomitraphylline, isospeciofoleine, speciofoline, corynoxine A, corynoxeine, and rhynchophylline) in US-grown kratom plants and commercial products. These commercial products shared a qualitatively similar alkaloid profile, with 12 – 13 detected alkaloids and high levels of the indole alkaloid mitragynine (13.9 ± 1.1 – 270 ± 24 mg/g). The levels of the other major alkaloids (paynantheine, speciociliatine, speciogynine, mitraciliatine, and isopaynantheine) and the minor alkaloids varied in concentration from product to product. The alkaloid profile of US-grown M. speciosa “Rifat” showed high levels of the indole alkaloid speciogynine (7.94 ± 0.83 – 11.55 ± 0.18 mg/g) and quantifiable levels of isomitraphylline (0.943 ± 0.033 – 1.47 ± 0.18 mg/g). Notably, the alkaloid profile of a US-grown M. speciosa seedling was comparable to the commercial products with a high level of mitragynine (15.01 ± 0.20 mg/g). This work suggests that there are several M. speciosa chemotypes.
340. D. M. S. Marçal et al., “Elevated [CO2] Benefits Coffee Growth and Photosynthetic Performance Regardless of Light Availability,” Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, vol. 158, pp. 524–535, Jan. 2021. doi: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2020.11.042. Abstract
     Despite being evolved in shaded environments, most coffee (Coffea arabica L.) is cultivated worldwide under sparse shade or at full sunlight. Coffee is ranked as greatly responsive to climate change (CC), and shading has been considered an important management strategy for mitigating the harmful CC outcomes on the crop. However, there is no information on the effects of enhanced [CO2] (eCa) on coffee performance in response to light availability. Here, we examined how carbon assimilation and use are affected by eCa in combination with contrasting light levels. For that, greenhouse-grown plants were submitted to varying light levels (16 or 7.5 mol photons m−2 day−1) and [CO2] (ca. 380 or 740 μmol mol−1 air) over six months. We demonstrated that both high light and eCa improved growth and photosynthetic performance, independently. Despite marginal alterations in biomass partitioning, some allometric changes, such as higher root biomass-to-total leaf area and lower leaf area ratio under the combination of eCa and high light were found. Stimulation of photosynthetic rates by eCa occurred with no direct effect on stomatal and mesophyll conductances, and no signs of photosynthetic down-regulation were found irrespective of treatments. Particularly at high light, eCa led to decreases in both photorespiration rates and oxidative pressure. Overall, our novel findings suggest that eCa could tandemly act with shading to mitigate the harmful CC effects on coffee sustainability.
341. D. E. Marias, F. C. Meinzer, and C. Still, “Impacts of Leaf Age and Heat Stress Duration on Photosynthetic Gas Exchange and Foliar Nonstructural Carbohydrates in Coffea Arabica,” Ecology and Evolution, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 1297–1310, 2017. doi: 10.1002/ece3.2681. Abstract
     Given future climate predictions of increased temperature, and frequency and intensity of heat waves in the tropics, suitable habitat to grow ecologically, economically, and socially valuable Coffea arabica is severely threatened. We investigated how leaf age and heat stress duration impact recovery from heat stress in C. arabica. Treated plants were heated in a growth chamber at 49°C for 45 or 90 min. Physiological recovery was monitored in situ using gas exchange, chlorophyll fluorescence (the ratio of variable to maximum fluorescence, FV/FM), and leaf nonstructural carbohydrate (NSC) on mature and expanding leaves before and 2, 15, 25, and 50 days after treatment. Regardless of leaf age, the 90-min treatment resulted in greater FV/FM reduction 2 days after treatment and slower recovery than the 45-min treatment. In both treatments, photosynthesis of expanding leaves recovered more slowly than in mature leaves. Stomatal conductance (gs) decreased in expanding leaves but did not change in mature leaves. These responses led to reduced intrinsic water-use efficiency with increasing heat stress duration in both age classes. Based on a leaf energy balance model, aftereffects of heat stress would be exacerbated by increases in leaf temperature at low gs under full sunlight where C. arabica is often grown, but also under partial sunlight. Starch and total NSC content of the 45-min group significantly decreased 2 days after treatment and then accumulated 15 and 25 days after treatment coinciding with recovery of photosynthesis and FV/FM. In contrast, sucrose of the 90-min group accumulated at day 2 suggesting that phloem transport was inhibited. Both treatment group responses contrasted with control plant total NSC and starch, which declined with time associated with subsequent flower and fruit production. No treated plants produced flowers or fruits, suggesting that short duration heat stress can lead to crop failure.
342. L. Marie et al., “G\,× E Interactions on Yield and Quality in Coffea Arabica: New F1 Hybrids Outperform American Cultivars,” Euphytica, vol. 216, no. 5, p. 78, Apr. 2020. doi: 10.1007/s10681-020-02608-8. Abstract
     Conventional American cultivars of coffee are no longer adapted to global warming. Finding highly productive and stable cultivars in different environments without neglecting quality characteristics has become a priority for breeders. In this study, new Arabica F1 hybrids clones were compared to conventional American varieties in seven contrasting environments, for yield, rust incidence and volume of the canopy. The quality was assessed through size, weight of 100 beans, biochemical analysis (24 aroma precursors and 31 volatiles compounds) and sensory analysis. Conventional varieties were the least productive, producing 50% less than the best hybrid. The AMMI model analysis pointed out five hybrids as the most stable and productive. Two F1 hybrids clones, H1-Centroamericano and H16-Mundo Maya, were superior to the most planted American cultivar in Latin and Central America showing a high yield performance and stability performance. H1-Centroamerica and Starmaya contain more d-limonene than Caturra, while Starmaya contain more 3-methylbutanoic acid than the control. Those two latter volatiles compounds are linked with good cup quality in previous studies. In terms of sensory analysis, Starmaya and H1-Centroamericano scored better than control.
343. V. Marin, L. Del Terra, P. Crisafulli, and L. Navarini, “The Oleosin Gene Family in Coffee: Analysis of Oleosomes, Oleosins and Lipid-Related Gene Expression during Germination of Coffea Arabica Seeds,” Plant Gene, vol. 24, p. 100263, Dec. 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.plgene.2020.100263. Abstract
     Little information is available about lipid metabolism in Coffea arabica L. seeds, which have an oil content between 11 and 16% w/w. This is surprising given the involvement of lipids in the physical, chemical, and physiological properties of the coffee beverage. To shed light on this subject, freshly harvested C. arabica seeds were sampled at different stages of germination. Oleosomes (the organelles responsible for lipid storage) were extracted and their structure was observed by differential interference-contrast microscopy. Triacylglycerol content of oleosomes was analyzed by thin-layer chromatography, and the protein fraction was evaluated by gel electrophoresis. A review of available genomic data on oleosin and lipase genes was performed, and expression of genes related to lipid metabolism was measured by Real-Time PCR. The results drew a coherent picture of coffee seed germination, revealing that oleosins have the highest concentration after 14 days of germination, followed by a marked decrease. This was backed up by molecular observations, showing how oleosin genes were downregulated after 6–9 days of germination, while genes related to lipid degradation were upregulated from day 9 onwards. Morphological evidence supported these findings, as after 14 days embryo growth became significant and cotyledons started to invade the endosperm and metabolize seed reserves. The present research will be an important first step in better understanding the biology of oleosomes in Coffea arabica L. and in elucidating the role of lipid metabolism in green coffee quality.
344. J. de B. C. Marques, C. Callado, G. Rabelo, S. S. Neto, and M. Cunha, “Comparative Wood Anatomy of Species of Psychotria L. (Rubiaceae) in Atlantic Rainforest Remnants of Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil.,” 2015. doi: 10.1590/0102-33062015ABB0006. Abstract
     The statistical analyses allowed the segregation of the species and indicated the importance of habit (arboreous or shrubby) on the wood anatomy of the Species and the wood characteristics are more related to the specificities of each studied taxon than to with environmental variations. Psychotria is the largest Rubiaceae genus and one of the most abundant in the Atlantic Rainforest of Rio de Janeiro State. The present work aims to characterize and compare the wood of nine of these species. ThePsychotria wood were characterized by: slightly distinct growth rings; diffuse porosity; solitary vessels or on radial multiples of 2-6 or clusters of 3-5 vessel elements, with terminal and lateral simple perforation plates and vestured and alternate intervessel and vessel-ray pits; septate fiber-tracheids; and rare axial parenchyma. Although, the wood anatomy of thePsychotria may be considered homogeneous, the statistical analyses, based on qualitative and quantitative features, allowed the segregation of the species and indicated the importance of habit (arboreous or shrubby) on the wood anatomy of the species. It is worth mentioning that the sampling was realized in only one studied site (Ilha Grande), which contributed to the conclusion that the wood characteristics are more related to the specificities of each studied taxon than to with environmental variations.
345. R. E. Márquez-López, C. Pérez-Hernández, Á. Ku-González, R. M. Galaz-Ávalos, and V. M. Loyola-Vargas, “Localization and Transport of Indole-3-Acetic Acid during Somatic Embryogenesis in Coffea Canephora,” Protoplasma, vol. 255, no. 2, pp. 695–708, 2018. doi: 10.1007/s00709-017-1181-1. Abstract
     Auxin and polar auxin transport have been implicated in controlling zygotic embryo development, but less is known about their role in the development of somatic embryos. The aim of this study was to determine if indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and the PIN1 transporter participate in the induction of somatic embryogenesis (SE) and the development of somatic embryos. The results show that IAA levels gradually increase during pre-treatment and accumulate in the chloroplast. During pre-treatment and the globular stage of SE in C. canephora, auxin is distributed uniformly in all of the cells of the somatic embryo. During the subsequent stages of development, auxins are mobilized to the cells that will form the cotyledons and the root meristem. The location of the PIN transporters shifts from the plasmalemma of the protoderm cells during the globular stage to the plasmalemma of the cells that will give rise to the cotyledons and the vascular tissue in the late stages of somatic embryogenesis. The incubation of the explants in the presence of 2,3,5-triiodobenzoic acid (TIBA) produced aberrant somatic embryos, suggesting that PIN1 mediates the transport of IAA.
346. A. E. P. Martínez, M. Romero-Tabarez, and A. D. Zapata-Zapata, “Functional Diversity of Microbial Communities Associated with Fermentation Processes in Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.),” Coffee Science - ISSN 1984-3909, vol. 16, pp. e161825–e161825, Apr. 2021. doi: 10.25186/.v16i.1825. Abstract
     Mucilage fermentation conducted to degrade and remove coffee mucilage, is an important stage to also define coffee quality, but each microorganism’s contribution to the final quality is not yet known. Therefore, tools are needed to easily identify this relationship in order to be used to enhance coffee quality. The present manuscript describes the behavior of the microbial communities present in fermentations conducted under various conditions, which produced differences in the sensory quality of the coffee as assessed by the community-level catabolic profile approach. The coffee samples camefrom six different fermentation processes that produced coffee in two quality classifications according to the Specialty Coffee Association (SCA) protocol: very good and excellent. Functional diversity of the microbial communities and substrate consumption were compared through analysis of variance. The multidimensional scaling analysis was used to identify the similarities or differences between treatments. The indices of functional diversity revealed significantdifferences and direct proportionality with the quality rating. Diversity index (H) was between 2.09 and 2.71 and Evenness was between 1.75 and 2.21. The consumption of groups of substrates was different between fermentations, especially in carbohydrates and carboxylic acids, and the greatest consumption of these was found in the excellent-quality coffee. The different fermentative processes evaluated by this technique showed a high metabolic activity related to the great diversity of substrates given to the microbial communities and microorganisms involved, causing reactions that had influence on the final quality of the product. Key words: Catabolic profiles; Coffee quality; Diversity indices.
347. H. E. P. Martinez et al., “Production, Chemical Composition, and Quality of Arabic Coffee Subjected to Copper Doses,” Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira, vol. 53, pp. 443–452, Apr. 2018. doi: 10.1590/S0100-204X2018000400006. Abstract
     Abstract: The objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of copper on the chemical composition of coffee beans and on the quality of the beverage, relating both of them to the Cu leaf contents in coffee (Coffea arabica) plants. Coffee plants were grown in a hydroponic system containing 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.6, and 3.2 μmol L-1 Cu until fruit setting. Coffee bean production was evaluated, and, after the cherries were dried, the following characteristics were determined: leaf Cu content; total titratable acidity; color index; electrical conductivity; leached K; polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity; concentrations of caffeine, trigonelline, organic acids, total phenols, chlorogenic acids (3-CQA, 4-CQA, and 5-CQA), sucrose, glucose, arabinose, mannose, and galactose; and sensory quality of roasted beans. Cu increased bean yield, PPO activity, and the concentrations of organic acids, 3-CQA, sucrose, and arabinose. Total titratable acidity, total phenols, 4-CQA, and 5-CQA were reduced with increasing Cu doses. Leaf contents related to the maximum and minimum values of desirable and undesirable quality attributes ranged from 5.6 to 11.4 mg kg-1 Cu, respectively. Copper affects the production and chemical composition of coffee beans, and the attributes related to quality are maximized in plants with low leaf contents of the nutrient.
348. H. E. P. Martinez, B. P. de Souza, E. T. Caixeta, F. P. de Carvalho, and J. M. Clemente, “Water Deficit Changes Nitrate Uptake and Expression of Some Nitrogen Related Genes in Coffee-Plants (Coffea Arabica L.),” Scientia Horticulturae, vol. 267, p. 109254, Jun. 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.scienta.2020.109254. Abstract
     Brazilian coffee cultivation has been expanding into areas of low fertility soils, many times subjected to low water availability, where the use of nitrogen fertilizers is high. To evaluate the effect of water stress on nitrate uptake and on the expression of genes that encode the nitrate uptake and assimilation we have done three experiments with Coffea arabica L. plants. The first was an 8 × 2 factorial (eight coffee cultivars x with or without water stress), with three replicates. We obtained the kinetic parameters of nitrate uptake. The second and third experiments consisted of 2 × 2 (two cultivars x with or without water stress) factorials. One of them was conducted with adequate supply of nitrogen and the other with omission of N. The transcriptional profiles of the genes NRT1.2, NRT3.2, NIA2, GLT, and GLN1.3 were analyzed. Water stress decreased Vmax (maximum velocity of absorption), Km (Michaelis-Menten constant), and Cmin (external concentration at which net uptake of ions is zero) in all cultivars. The cultivar Catuaí Amarelo IAC 62 stood out with high Vmax and low Km in both conditions, and the Cultivar Mundo Novo IAC379-19, although with low Vmax, had low Km and low Cmin, without changes under water stress. In plants under water stress, the genes NRT1.2, NRT3.2, NIA2, and GLT showed higher differential transcription in root systems. GLN1.3 gene had higher relative expression in the shoots. Under water stress, the relative expression of these genes was higher in Mundo Novo IAC 379-19 than in Catuaí Amarelo IAC 62 in both nitrogen doses.
349. H. E. P. Martinez, Y. Poltronieri, A. Farah, and D. Perrone, “Zinc Supplementation, Production and Quality of Coffee Beans,” Revista Ceres, vol. 60, pp. 293–299, Apr. 2013. doi: 10.1590/S0034-737X2013000200020. Abstract
     Besides its importance in the coffee tree nutrition, there is almost no information relating zinc nutrition and bean quality. This work evaluated the effect of zinc on the coffee yield and bean quality. The experiment was conducted with Coffea arabica L. in "Zona da Mata" region, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Twelve plots were established at random with 4 competitive plants each. Treatments included plants supplemented with zinc (eight plots) and control without zinc supplementation (four plots). Plants were subjected to two treatments: zinc supplementation and control. Yield, number of defective beans, beans attacked by berry borers, bean size, cup quality, beans zinc concentration, potassium leaching, electrical conductivity, color index, total tritable acidity, pH, chlorogenic acids contents and ferric-reducing antioxidant activity of beans were evaluated. Zinc positively affected quality of coffee beans, which presented lower percentage of medium and small beans, lower berry borer incidence, lower potassium leaching and electrical conductivity, higher contents of zinc and chlorogenic acids and higher antioxidant activity in comparison with control beans.
350. L. D. Martins, M. A. Tomaz, F. C. Lidon, F. M. DaMatta, and J. C. Ramalho, “Combined Effects of Elevated [CO2] and High Temperature on Leaf Mineral Balance in Coffea Spp. Plants,” Climatic Change, vol. 126, no. 3, pp. 365–379, Oct. 2014. doi: 10.1007/s10584-014-1236-7. Abstract
     Modelling studies predicted that climate change will have strong impacts on the coffee crop, although no information on the effective impact of elevated CO2 on this plant exists. Here, we aim at providing a first glimpse on the effect of the combined impact of enhanced [CO2] and high temperature on the leaf mineral content and balance on this important tropical crop. Potted plants from two genotypes of Coffea arabica (cv. Icatu and IPR 108) and one from C. canephora (cv. Conilon Clone 153) were grown under 380 or 700 μL CO2 L−1 air, for 1 year, after which were exposed to an stepwise increase in temperature from 25/20 °C (day/night) up to 42/34 °C, over 8 weeks. Leaf macro\,−\,(N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S) and micronutrients (B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn) concentrations were analyzed at 25/20 °C (control), 31/25 °C, 37/30 °C and 42/34 °C. At the control temperature, the 700 μL L−1 grown plants showed a moderate dilution effect (between 7 % and 25 %) in CL 153 (for N, Mg, Ca, Fe) and Icatu (for N, K and Fe), but not in IPR 108 (except for Fe) when compared to the 380 μL L−1 plants. For temperatures higher than control most nutrients tended to increase, frequently presenting maximal contents at 42/34 °C (or 37/30 °C), although the relation between [CO2] treatments did not appreciably change. Such increases offset the few dilution effects observed under high growth [CO2] at 25/20 °C. No clear species responses were found considering [CO2] and temperature impacts, although IPR 108 seemed less sensitive to [CO2]. Despite the changes promoted by [CO2] and heat, the large majority of mineral ratios were kept within a range considered adequate, suggesting that this plant can maintain mineral balances in a context of climate changes and global warming.
351. L. D. Martins et al., “Exploring the nutritional efficiency of genotypes of Coffea arabica L. from different parental lineages in contrasting environments for N availability,” African Journal of Biotechnology, vol. 18, no. 20, pp. 435–443, May 2019. doi: 10.5897/AJB2019.16796. Abstract
     The different responses of improved genotypes to alterations of the availability of nutrients indicate that it is possible to modulate the nutritional efficiency by exploring the interaction between the intrinsic response of a genotype and the level of nutrient supply. The objective of this research was to assess the response of genotypes of Coffea arabica L., from different parental lineages, to contrasting environments for N supply, using parameters of growth and nutritional efficiency indexes to explore a possible increase in the nutritional efficiency. The experiment followed a 3×3 factorial scheme, in a completely randomized design, with 3 improved genotypes (Acauã, Katipó and Topázio) and 3 environments with different levels of N availability in the soil (50, 100 and 200% of the recommended supply). The growth and nutritional efficiency of C. arabica is influenced by the effects of the intrinsic differences among genotypes and can be modulated by changes in the environment, based on the response to different supplies of N in the soil. Genotypes from different parental linages are able to present highly contrasting responses to the fertilization with N, indicating a high variability to be explored. Among the studied genotypes, Topázio presents higher accumulation of biomass and high nutritional efficiency for absorbing, translocating and using N in environments with low fertility; while Acauã presents higher efficiency in environments with higher N supply. Key words: Coffee, genotypes, mineral nutrition, variability.
352. S. C. V. Martins, W. L. Araújo, T. Tohge, A. R. Fernie, and F. M. DaMatta, “In High-Light-Acclimated Coffee Plants the Metabolic Machinery Is Adjusted to Avoid Oxidative Stress Rather than to Benefit from Extra Light Enhancement in Photosynthetic Yield,” PLOS ONE, vol. 9, no. 4, p. e94862, Apr. 2014. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0094862. Abstract
     Coffee (Coffea arabica L.) has been traditionally considered as shade-demanding, although it performs well without shade and even out-yields shaded coffee. Here we investigated how coffee plants adjust their metabolic machinery to varying light supply and whether these adjustments are supported by a reprogramming of the primary and secondary metabolism. We demonstrate that coffee plants are able to adjust its metabolic machinery to high light conditions through marked increases in its antioxidant capacity associated with enhanced consumption of reducing equivalents. Photorespiration and alternative pathways are suggested to be key players in reductant-consumption under high light conditions. We also demonstrate that both primary and secondary metabolism undergo extensive reprogramming under high light supply, including depression of the levels of intermediates of the tricarboxylic acid cycle that were accompanied by an up-regulation of a range of amino acids, sugars and sugar alcohols, polyamines and flavonoids such as kaempferol and quercetin derivatives. When taken together, the entire dataset is consistent with these metabolic alterations being primarily associated with oxidative stress avoidance rather than representing adjustments in order to facilitate the plants from utilizing the additional light to improve their photosynthetic performance.
353. L. D. Martins, M. A. Tomaz, J. F. T. do Amaral, S. M. Bragança, W. N. Rodrigues, and E. F. dos Reis, “Nutritional Efficiency in Clones of Conilon Coffee for Phosphorus,” Journal of Agricultural Science, vol. 5, no. 1, p. p130, Dec. 2012. doi: 10.5539/jas.v5n1p130. Abstract
     The objective of this study was to evaluate the nutritional efficiency of phosphorus in clones of conilon coffee, in greenhouse condition. A factorial design 13 x 4 was used, with three replications, and the factors being: 13 clones that compose the clonal cultivar "Vitória Incaper 8142" and four levels of phosphorus fertilization (0%, 50%, 100% and 150% of the recommended P2O5 for the culture) in a completely randomized design (CRD). The cultivation consisted of a period of 150 days, then in each experimental unit, the values of dry matter and phosphorus content of the vegetative parts were obtained. The indices of nutritional efficiency (absorption, translocation and utilization) were calculated. The clones of conilon coffee showed different behavior for all variables at each level of fertilization with P2O5. The mass of dry weight, phosphorus content, and efficiency of phosphorus utilization of the clones increase linearly with the increase of P2O5. The efficiency of phosphorus absorption, depending on the levels of P2O5 applied to the clones of conilon coffee, has set to a quadratic model. The translocation efficiency of phosphorus, depending on the levels of P2O5 applied, is different for clones of conilon coffee, with a linear characteristic and also quadratic.
354. L. D. Martins, L. D. S. Machado, M. A. Tomaz, and \relax J. F. T. do Amaral, “The Nutritional Efficiency of Coffea Spp. A Review,” African Journal of Biotechnology, vol. 14, no. 9, pp. 728–734, 2015. doi: 10.4314/ajb.v14i9. Abstract
     Reduced soil fertility has been surpassed by the supply of mineral nutrients, which results in increased rates of plant production and costs. In this context, the optimization of plants’ nutritional efficiency is critical to increase productivity and reduce the cost of agricultural production systems. The nutritional efficiency of plants is conditioned by numerous factors and the growing environment. Therefore, the knowledge of genetic basis and mode of inheritance can assist in selecting genotypes with desirable agronomic characteristics coupled with nutritional efficiency and genetic variability. The trend of expanding agricultural frontiers has increased interest in the use of genotypes with the potential to adapt to adverse conditions of soil fertility. Within crops, the coffee beans are the second most traded commodity in the world. In this sense, optimization of nutritional efficiency of the coffee has a positive impact on the sum of efforts to make sustainable activity. This review aimed to present a systematic analysis of the nutritional efficiency of the coffee. Key words: Nutrient absorption and utilization, root length, genetic variability.
355. M. Q. Martins et al., “Protective Response Mechanisms to Heat Stress in Interaction with High [CO2] Conditions in Coffea Spp.,” Frontiers in Plant Science, vol. 7, p. 947, 2016. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2016.00947. Abstract
     Modeling studies have predicted that coffee crop will be endangered by future global warming, but recent reports highlighted that high [CO2] can mitigate heat impacts on coffee. This work aimed at identifying heat protective mechanisms promoted by CO2 in Coffea arabica (cv. Icatu and IPR108) and Coffea canephora cv. Conilon CL153. Plants were grown at 25/20°C (day/night), under 380 or 700 μL CO2 L−1, and then gradually submitted to 31/25, 37/30, and 42/34°C. Relevant heat tolerance up to 37/30°C for both [CO2] and all coffee genotypes was observed, likely supported by the maintenance or increase of the pools of several protective molecules (neoxanthin, lutein, carotenes, α-tocopherol, HSP70, raffinose), activities of antioxidant enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), glutathione reductase (GR), catalase (CAT), and the upregulated expression of some genes (ELIP, Chaperonin 20). However, at 42/34°C a tolerance threshold was reached, mostly in the 380-plants and Icatu. Adjustments in raffinose, lutein, β-carotene, α-tocopherol and HSP70 pools, and the upregulated expression of genes related to protective (ELIPS, HSP70, Chape 20, and 60) and antioxidant (CAT, CuSOD2, APX Cyt, APX Chl) proteins were largely driven by temperature. However, enhanced [CO2] maintained higher activities of GR (Icatu) and CAT (Icatu and IPR108), kept (or even increased) the Cu,Zn-SOD, APX, and CAT activities, and promoted a greater upregulation of those enzyme genes, as well as those related to HSP70, ELIPs, Chaperonins in CL153, and Icatu. These changes likely favored the maintenance of reactive oxygen species (ROS) at controlled levels and contributed to mitigate of photosystem II photoinhibition at the highest temperature. Overall, our results highlighted the important role of enhanced [CO2] on the coffee crop acclimation and sustainability under predicted future global warming scenarios.
356. S. C. V. Martins, J. Galmés, P. C. Cavatte, L. F. Pereira, M. C. Ventrella, and F. M. DaMatta, “Understanding the Low Photosynthetic Rates of Sun and Shade Coffee Leaves: Bridging the Gap on the Relative Roles of Hydraulic, Diffusive and Biochemical Constraints to Photosynthesis,” PLOS ONE, vol. 9, no. 4, p. e95571, Apr. 2014. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0095571. Abstract
     It has long been held that the low photosynthetic rates (A) of coffee leaves are largely associated with diffusive constraints to photosynthesis. However, the relative limitations of the stomata and mesophyll to the overall diffusional constraints to photosynthesis, as well as the coordination of leaf hydraulics with photosynthetic limitations, remain to be fully elucidated in coffee. Whether the low actual A under ambient CO2 concentrations is associated with the kinetic properties of Rubisco and high (photo)respiration rates also remains elusive. Here, we provide a holistic analysis to understand the causes associated with low A by measuring a variety of key anatomical/hydraulic and photosynthetic traits in sun- and shade-grown coffee plants. We demonstrate that leaf hydraulic architecture imposes a major constraint on the maximisation of the photosynthetic gas exchange of coffee leaves. Regardless of the light treatments, A was mainly limited by stomatal factors followed by similar limitations associated with the mesophyll and biochemical constraints. No evidence of an inefficient Rubisco was found; rather, we propose that coffee Rubisco is well tuned for operating at low chloroplastic CO2 concentrations. Finally, we contend that large diffusive resistance should lead to large CO2 drawdown from the intercellular airspaces to the sites of carboxylation, thus favouring the occurrence of relatively high photorespiration rates, which ultimately leads to further limitations to A.
357. C. J. Marur and R. T. de Faria, “Photosynthesis of Individual Leaves in a Coffee Plant,” Acta Sci. Agron., vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 331–336, 2006. doi: 10.4025/actasciagron.v28i3.941. Abstract
     The great variability in income irradiance over a plant canopy makes difficult the comparison of photosynthesis rates among leaves in a plant and their integration. In this study, photosynthetical rates of ten different leaves of a coffee plant were obtained during a day. The daily variation in photosynthetic rates showed a peak between 7:00 h and 9:00 h with higher values measured for the leaves positioned at the sunrise direction and northern orientation. Lower values were consistently observed for leaves at inner position of the plant. After 9:00 h, despite the increase in photosynthetically active radiation, photosynthetic rates decreased steadily to reach negligible values at sunset. The reductions on photosynthesis rates can also be attributed to increasing stomatal resistance. Since number of leaves is highly variable in coffee plants, those results make evident how difficult is to integrate and estimate whole plant photosynthesis by taking the average of 10 leaves.
358. F. S. Matos, R. Wolfgramm, F. V. Gonçalves, P. C. Cavatte, M. C. Ventrella, and F. M. DaMatta, “Phenotypic Plasticity in Response to Light in the Coffee Tree,” Environmental and Experimental Botany, vol. 67, no. 2, pp. 421–427, Dec. 2009. doi: 10.1016/j.envexpbot.2009.06.018. Abstract
     Phenotypic plasticity to light availability was examined at the leaf level in field-grown coffee trees (Coffea arabica). This species has been traditionally considered as shade-demanding, although it performs well without shade and even out-yields shaded coffee. Specifically, we focused our attention on the morpho-anatomical plasticity, the balance between light capture and excess light energy dissipation, as well as on physiological traits associated with carbon gain. A wide natural light gradient, i.e., a diurnal intercepted photon irradiance differing by a factor of 25 between the deepest shade leaves and the more exposed leaves in the canopy, was explored. Responses of most traits to light were non-linear, revealing the classic leaf sun vs. leaf shade dichotomy (e.g., compared with sun leaves, shade leaves had a lower stomatal density, a thinner palisade mesophyll, a higher specific leaf area, an improved light capture, a lower respiration rate, a lower light compensating point and a limited capacity for photoprotection). The light-saturated rates of net photosynthesis were higher in sunlit than in shade leaves, although sun leaves were not efficient enough to use the extra light supply. However, sun leaves showed well-developed photoprotection mechanisms in comparison to shade leaves, which proved sufficient for avoiding photoinhibition. Specifically, a higher non-photochemical quenching coefficient was found in parallel to increases in: (i) zeaxanthin pools, (ii) de-epoxidation state of the xanthophyll cycle, and (iii) activities of some antioxidant enzymes. Intracanopy plasticity depended on the suite of traits considered, and was high for some physiological traits associated with photoprotection and maintenance of a positive carbon balance under low light, but low for most morpho-anatomical features. Our data largely explain the successful cultivation of the coffee tree in both exposed and shade environments, although with a poor resource-use efficiency in high light.
359. S. N. Matsumoto, F. M. de Carvalho, A. E. S. Viana, M. R. Malta, and L. G. Castro, “Initial Growth of Coffee Plants (Coffea Arabica L.) Submitted to Different Phosphate Doses in Nutritive Solution,” Coffee Science, vol. 3, no. 1, p. 10, Jan. 2008. http://www.sbicafe.ufv.br/handle/123456789/5632. Abstract
     The objective of this study was to evaluate growth alterations and water relations in coffee plants (Coffea arabica L.) at the initial stage of development, grown in nutritive solution (hydroponics) and submitted to a wide variation of P doses. The various doses of P applied to the coffee plants similarly affected the growth characteristics evaluated (number of leaves, height, total leaf area, and dry and green mass accumulation), fitting a logarithmic model, with a direct relationship between P doses and growth. The logarithmic model was also fitted to the leaf water potential module, evaluated in the pre-dawn period and at noon. However, the direct relationship between P doses and water potential was only verified for determinations made at noon; the opposite behavior occurred with readings made in the pre-dawn period, since values decreased as P doses increased. Interactions between P and N nutritional status as well as between P and the water status of plants are discussed, with emphasis on the importance of future investigations.
360. H. N. Matsuura, V. Fragoso, J. T. Paranhos, M. R. Rau, and A. G. Fett-Neto, “The Bioactive Monoterpene Indole Alkaloid N,β-d-Glucopyranosyl Vincosamide Is Regulated by Irradiance Quality and Development in Psychotria Leiocarpa,” Industrial Crops and Products, vol. 86, pp. 210–218, Aug. 2016. doi: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2016.03.050. Abstract
     Leaves of Psychotria leiocarpa accumulate a major shoot-specific indole alkaloid, N,β-d-glucopyranosyl vincosamide (GPV), which has antioxidant, but no apparent antifeedant or allelopathic activity. The species is tolerant to high doses of UV-B, possibly due to constitutive GPV accumulation in leaves. In seedlings, GPV accumulation is induced by white light in a photosynthesis independent fashion. To better understand the regulation of the in planta GPV pool, detailed alkaloid profiles were examined. Light shift tests confirmed that GPV accumulation is light dependent. GPV was tightly regulated in its organ distribution, with highest concentrations in reproductive structures. Far-red and blue wavelengths promoted GPV accumulation without clear correlation with carbohydrate or protein concentrations or dry biomass in seedlings, thus indicating direct effects of light. Since light conditions are often associated with higher oxidative stress, light-induced accumulation of GPV may contribute to maintain redox balance. In vitro, GPV was an overall more effective antioxidant compared to closely related alkaloids. Indirect evidence of potential antioxidant properties of GPV in vivo was obtained by application of GPV on leaves of UV sensitive species exposed to high doses of UV-B, which significantly improved tolerance to this stress. In contrast to the known constitutive accumulation of GPV in leaves, the alkaloid concentration proved to be highly dynamic, changing during development, reproductive organogenesis and seedling irradiance treatments. Data further support a role for GPV as an oxidative stress protectant and provide a means to improve alkaloid yields in plant biomass for pharmacological applications.
361. R. N. Mayoli, D. K. Isutsa, and A. B. Nyende, “Coffea Arabica Cultivar Ruiru 11 Sibs Exhibit Significant Variation in Plant Regeneration through Direct Somatic Embryogenesis.,” International Journal of Development and Sustainability, vol. 7, no. 11, pp. 2807–2820, 2018. http://repository.chuka.ac.ke/handle/chuka/632. Abstract
     This experiment evaluated the response of 11 selected recalcitrant coffee ‘Ruiru 11’ sibs to plantlet regeneration through direct somatic embryogenesis. Third leaf pair explants from field-grown mother plants were harvested, sterilized and induced for up to 12 months in half-strength Murashige and Skoog basal salts medium supplemented with 1 ml/L thidiazuron, 0.2 g/L thiamine, 0.1 g/L nicotinic acid, 0.1 g/L pyridoxine, 20 g/L sucrose, 100 mg/L myo- inositol, 100 mg/L cysteine and 3 g/L gelrite. Embryos were sequentially transferred to media for shooting for 8 weeks, rooting for 6 weeks and weaning for 4 weeks. The explants were effectively sterilized using 30% sodium hypochlorite (3.85 v/v) for 20 minutes. The sibs showed significant (P<0.05) genotypic variation, with sibs 11, 41, 71 and 121 from ‘Catimor 86’and those from ‘Catimor 90, 128 and 134’ regenerating somatic embryos, whereas sibs 52 and 142 from ‘Catimor 88’ failing to do so. Sib 137 had the highest 63% embryogenic rate and 3.7 average embryos per explant. Sibs 71 and 137 embryos developed longest shoots, with 84% of sib 137 embryos developing shoots. Sibs 93 and 71 embryos developed longest roots, with 91% of sib 71 embryos developing roots. About 91% of sib 71 plantlets survived acclimatization. Sibs 137, 71 and 93 were classified as highly embryogenic, whereas sibs 52 and 142 were non-embryogenic. Sib 71 best responded to plantlet regeneration through direct somatic embryogenesis. Therefore, sib 71 plantlets should be used in future as stocks for mother plants for mass propagation of ‘Ruiru 11’.
362. R. N. Mayoli, D. K. Isutsa, and A. B. Nyende, “A Protocol for Regenerating Genetically Stable Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Plantlets through Direct Somatic Embryogenesis,” International Journal of Development and Sustainability, vol. 8, no. 9, pp. 645–656, 2019. https://isdsnet.com/ijds-v8n9-11.pdf. Abstract
     Coffee is an important beverage crop owing to its economic benefits at individual and national levels. The most important part of coffee in vitro micropropagation is the generation of genetically homogenous and uniform plantlets with all desirable characters of the mother plant. Somaclonal variation may lead to generation of off-types planting material with undesirable character(s) due to loss of genetic fidelity. The present experiment investigated genetic stability and somaclonal variation of 54 somatic embryo-regenerated Coffea arabica ‘Ruiru 11’ sibs 93, 100, 121 and 137 and 2 clonal mother plants of each sib. The Sibs were characterized using 13 SSR molecular markers. The molecular data was organized into a matrix and genetic similarity calculated with Jaccard’s distances using XLSTAT statistical software and a profile plot constructed using Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic average cluster analysis to evaluate the genetic fidelity amongst the regenerated plantlets. All banding profiles from somatic embryogenesis regenerated plantlets were monomorphic and similar to those of the mother plants with a similarity value of 1. The profile plot revealed 100% similarity between the somatic embryo-regenerated plantlets and the clonal mother plants. These results confirmed that the somatic embryo-regenerated progenies were uniform according to the SSR markers. The somatic embryogenesis process had a mechanism for selecting competent cells and the regenerated plantlets were genetically stable. Therefore, the protocol for regenerating somatic embryos is recommended for use in mass propagation of the disease-resistant somaclones for distribution to farmers to use in expansion of the acreage planted with coffee.
363. P. Mazzafera, “Mineral Nutrition and Caffeine Content in Coffee Leaves,” Bragantia, vol. 58, pp. 387–391, 1999. doi: 10.1590/S0006-87051999000200018. Abstract
     The effect of nutrient supply on the caffeine content of coffee (Coffea arabica L.) leaves was investigated. Seeds were germinated in nutrient-agar media lacking N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Zn, B or Mo. The control treatment contained all essential nutrients. The caffeine concentration was determined seven months after seed sowing when the seedlings have 3 to 4 pair of leaves. The omission of K induced the highest caffeine content in the leaves (24.5 g.kg-1). Caffeine in the control treatment was 21.9 g.kg -1. Absence of P induced the lowest content, 17.5 g.kg-1.
364. R. L. McAlister, D. A. Kolterman, A. J. Pollard, R. L. McAlister, D. A. Kolterman, and A. J. Pollard, “Nickel Hyperaccumulation in Populations of Psychotria Grandis (Rubiaceae) from Serpentine and Non-Serpentine Soils of Puerto Rico,” Australian Journal of Botany, vol. 63, no. 2, pp. 85–91, May 2015. doi: 10.1071/BT14337. Abstract
     Metal hyperaccumulators are plants that store heavy metals or metalloids in their leaves, often to concentrations much higher than in the soil. Though most occur exclusively on metalliferous soils, some species are facultative, occurring on both metalliferous and nonmetalliferous soils. Psychotria grandis Sw.(Rubiaceae) occurs from Central America through the Caribbean on many soil types, and hyperaccumulates nickel (Ni) on serpentine soils in several localities. In this study, four Puerto Rican populations of P. grandis – two from serpentine soil and two from non-serpentine soil – were examined to compare Ni accumulation between and within populations. Multiple trees were sampled at most sites, with replicate leaves harvested from each tree. Foliar nickel concentrations were measured by atomic absorption spectrometry. Mean Ni concentration differed significantly among the sites, ranging from <165 µg g–1 on non-serpentine soil to >4000 µg g–1 on serpentine soil. There were also significant differences in Ni concentration among trees within sites, with especially wide variation at one of the serpentine sites known to be geologically heterogeneous. Despite these differences in field-collected leaves, a hydroponic common-garden experiment indicated that the Ni accumulation capacities of the populations were approximately equal. Variation in Ni accumulation between and within these populations in the field is likely to result from variation in Ni availability in the soil.
365. G. L. McCartha, C. M. Taylor, A. van der Ent, G. Echevarria, D. M. Navarrete Gutiérrez, and A. J. Pollard, “Phylogenetic and Geographic Distribution of Nickel Hyperaccumulation in Neotropical Psychotria,” American Journal of Botany, vol. 106, no. 10, pp. 1377–1385, 2019. doi: 10.1002/ajb2.1362. Abstract
     Premise Hyperaccumulation of heavy metals in plants has never been documented from Central America or Mexico. Psychotria grandis, P. costivenia, and P. glomerata (Rubiaceae) have been reported to hyperaccumulate nickel in the Greater Antilles, but they also occur widely across the neotropics. The goals of this research were to investigate the geographic distribution of hyperaccumulation in these species and explore the phylogenetic distribution of hyperaccumulation in this clade by testing related species. Methods Portable x-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy was used to analyze 565 specimens representing eight species of Psychotria from the Missouri Botanical Garden herbarium. Results Nickel hyperaccumulation was found in specimens of Psychotria costivenia ranging from Mexico to Costa Rica and in specimens of P. grandis from Guatemala to Ecuador and Venezuela. Among related species, nickel hyperaccumulation is reported for the first time in P. lorenciana and P. papantlensis, but no evidence of hyperaccumulation was found in P. clivorum, P. flava, or P. pleuropoda. Previous reports of hyperaccumulation in P. glomerata appear to be erroneous, resulting from taxonomic synonymy and specimen misidentification. Conclusions Hyperaccumulation of nickel by Psychotria is now known to occur widely from southern Mexico through Central America to northwestern South America, including some areas not known to have ultramafic soils. Novel aspects of this research include the successful prediction of new hyperaccumulator species based on molecular phylogeny, use of XRF technology to nondestructively obtain elemental data from herbarium specimens, and documentation of previously unknown areas of ultramafic or nickel-rich soil based on such data.
366. G. L. McCartha, C. M. Taylor, A. van der Ent, G. Echevarria, D. M. Navarrete Gutiérrez, and A. J. Pollard, “Phylogenetic and Geographic Distribution of Nickel Hyperaccumulation in Neotropical Psychotria,” American Journal of Botany, vol. 106, no. 10, pp. 1377–1385, 2019. doi: 10.1002/ajb2.1362. Abstract
     Premise Hyperaccumulation of heavy metals in plants has never been documented from Central America or Mexico. Psychotria grandis, P. costivenia, and P. glomerata (Rubiaceae) have been reported to hyperaccumulate nickel in the Greater Antilles, but they also occur widely across the neotropics. The goals of this research were to investigate the geographic distribution of hyperaccumulation in these species and explore the phylogenetic distribution of hyperaccumulation in this clade by testing related species. Methods Portable x-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy was used to analyze 565 specimens representing eight species of Psychotria from the Missouri Botanical Garden herbarium. Results Nickel hyperaccumulation was found in specimens of Psychotria costivenia ranging from Mexico to Costa Rica and in specimens of P. grandis from Guatemala to Ecuador and Venezuela. Among related species, nickel hyperaccumulation is reported for the first time in P. lorenciana and P. papantlensis, but no evidence of hyperaccumulation was found in P. clivorum, P. flava, or P. pleuropoda. Previous reports of hyperaccumulation in P. glomerata appear to be erroneous, resulting from taxonomic synonymy and specimen misidentification. Conclusions Hyperaccumulation of nickel by Psychotria is now known to occur widely from southern Mexico through Central America to northwestern South America, including some areas not known to have ultramafic soils. Novel aspects of this research include the successful prediction of new hyperaccumulator species based on molecular phylogeny, use of XRF technology to nondestructively obtain elemental data from herbarium specimens, and documentation of previously unknown areas of ultramafic or nickel-rich soil based on such data.
367. E. H. McIlhenny, J. Riba, M. J. Barbanoj, R. Strassman, and S. A. Barker, “Methodology for and the Determination of the Major Constituents and Metabolites of the Amazonian Botanical Medicine Ayahuasca in Human Urine,” Biomedical Chromatography, vol. 25, no. 9, pp. 970–984, 2011. doi: 10.1002/bmc.1551. Abstract
     Ayahuasca, also known as caapi or yage among various South American groups, holds a highly esteemed and millennia-old position in these cultures’ medical and religious pharmacopeia. There is now an increasing interest in the potential for modern medical applications of ayahuasca, as well as concerns regarding its increasing potential for abuse. Toxicological and clinical research to address these issues will require information regarding its metabolism and clearance. Thus, a rapid, sensitive and specific method for characterization and quantitation of the major constituents and of the metabolites of ayahuasca in urine is needed. The present research provides a protocol for conducting such analyses. The characteristics of the method, conducted by sample dilution and using HPLC–electrospray ionization (ESI)–selected reaction monitoring (SRM)–tandem mass spectrometry, are presented. The application of the analytical protocol to urine samples collected from three individuals that were administered ayahuasca has also been demonstrated. The data show that the major metabolite of the hallucinogenic component of ayahuasca, N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), is the corresponding N-oxide, the first time this metabolite has been described in in vivo studies in humans. Further, very little DMT was detected in urine, despite the inhibition of monoamine oxidase afforded by the presence of the harmala alkaloids in ayahuasca. The major harmala alkaloid excreted was tetrahydroharmine. Other excretion products and metabolites were also identified and quantified. The method described would be suitable for use in further toxicological and clinical research on ayahuasca. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
368. D. J. McKenna, G. H. N. Towers, and F. Abbott, “Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors in South American Hallucinogenic Plants: Tryptamine and β-Carboline Constituents of Ayahuasca,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 195–223, Apr. 1984. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(84)90003-5. Abstract
     Ayahuasca is a hallucinogenic beverage derived by boiling the bark of the Malpighiaceous liana Banisteriopsis caapi together with the leaves of various admixture plants, viz. Psychotria viridis, Psychotria carthagenensis, or Diplopterys cabrerana. B. caapi contains harmine, harmaline, and tetrahydroharmine while the admixtures contain N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT). DMT, a potent hallucinogen, is inactive orally due to degradation by visceral monoamine oxidase (MAO). The β-carbolines, however, are highly active reversible inhibitors of MAO and may protect the DMT from deamination by MAO and render it orally active. This mechanism has been proposed to underlie the oral activity of ayahuasca but has not been experimentally confirmed. In the present study the constituents of the admixture plants and the alkaloids of eight ayahuasca samples from Peru were qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed using two-dimensional thin-layer chromatography (TLC), high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Several B. caapi cultivars were quantitatively compared for variations in alkaloid content. Three admixture plants used rarely in the manufacture of ayahuasca were also screened for alkaloids. A selected sample of β-carbolines were screened for activity as MAO inhibitors using an in vitro assay system, and structure/activity relationships were compared. Inhibition observed with single compounds was compared with the activity of selected samples of ayahuasca which were screened in the system and also with the activity of mixtures of β-carbolines. The levels of DMT and β-carbolines found in the ayahuasca samples examined in the present study were an order of magnitude greater than the levels reported in a previous study. Ayahuasca was found to be an extremely effective inhibitor of MAO in vitro and the degree of inhibition was directly correlated with the concentration of MAO-inhibiting β-carbolines. Inhibition experiments using mixtures of β-carbolines indicated that their effects in combination are additive, rather than synergistic or antagonistic. Implications of the results in understanding the pharmacology of ayahuasca are discussed.
369. H. P. Medina-Filho, R. Bordignon, O. Guerreiro-Filho, M. P. Maluf, and L. C. Fazuoli, “Breeding of Arabica Coffee at IAC, Brazil: Objectives, Problems and Prospects,” Acta Horticulturae, no. 745, pp. 393–408, Jun. 2007. doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2007.745.25. Abstract
     Brazil is the world’s leading Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica) producer. Ninety percent of cultivars grown derive from the Instituto Agronômico (IAC) breeding program, based on exploitation of large germplasm, long-run efforts for artificial hybridizations, and evaluations in representative growing regions. Since the species is predominantly self-pollinated, breeding strategies aim to produce homozygous lines developed mainly by pedigree or backcross methods. Yield is outstanding in modern cultivars. To be increased, genotype × environment interactions must be exploited or exotic polygenes introgressed. Bean size is minimum in cultivar ′Mokka′ (momo) and maximum in the cultivar ′Maragogipe′ (MgMg). ′Bourbons′ (tt) have smaller beans than common cultivars but superior beverage quality. The Ct allele is the basis of several short-stature releases. Further reduction in plant size might be achieved by combining Sb and Vl but selection is hampered by a double-dominant epistatic interaction at the nursery stage. Nine SH genes for leaf-rust resistance in Coffea are counteracted by nine pathogenicity v genes in Hemileia vastatrix. SH1,2,4,5 from Ethiopian accessions, SH3 from C. liberica, and the remaining from C. canephora were bred into C. arabica. Changes in prevalent rust races have overcome several resistances. Lm1 and Lm2 genes for leaf-miner resistance from C. racemosa were transferred to C. canephora × C. arabica backcross derived lines but cultivar release awaits uniform advanced lines. Breeding for nematode resistance identified in C. canephora derivatives and Ethiopian accessions needs basic studies and integration with molecular markers. The ′Mokka′ accession has superior cup quality but the momo gene block reduces bean size and yields. C. eugenioides, a diploid ancestor of C. arabica, is a source of fine flavor. Initial backcross lines are extremely late with low yields but show a distinct cup profile. Presently, 65 cultivars are recommended by IAC for plantings in diverse edaphoclimatic regions of Brazil.
370. A. Melke and F. Ittana, “Nutritional Requirement and Management of Arabica Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) in Ethiopia: National and Global Perspectives,” American Journal of Experimental Agriculture, vol. 5, pp. 400–418, Jan. 2014. doi: 10.9734/AJEA/2015/12510. Abstract
     The bulk of coffee soils in southwestern and southern regions of Ethiopia are classified as Nitto sols, which are highly weathered and originate from volcanic rock. These soils are deep and well drained having a pH of 5-6, and have medium to high contents of most of the essential elements except nitrogen and phosphorus. Also, most of the coffee plantations are often managed with shade trees in small scale, with minimal fertilization; litter fall and decomposition play an important role in nitrogen cycling and maintenance of soil fertility. The amount of plant nutrient required by coffee trees may vary depending on several factors. the amount and distribution of rainfall, the species and amount of other plants grown in association with the coffee trees, seasonal variation, topography, soil type and the prevailing cultural practices. Proper coffee nutrition requires special attention of the grower because it affects bean size (grade), bean quality and the overall productivity of the crop that determines marketability. Nutrients are applied to replenish those that are lost through tissue formation, yields, leaching and those that form compounds where they cannot be easily extracted by roots. This calls for application of mineral fertilizers and/or organic Review Article Melke and Ittana; AJEA, 5(5): 400-418, 2015; Article no.AJEA.2015.041 401 manures so as to apply the necessary nutrients in the required amounts. As a result it was possible to come out with a set of recommendations that are of immense value to the growers. Therefore, the objective of this paper is to review the achievements and constraints of mineral fertilization and the potential to use of organic/bio-fertilizers for the present and future coffee production in Ethiopia.
371. S. M. Mello et al., “Effect of Ritualistic Consumption of Ayahuasca on Hepatic Function in Chronic Users,” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, vol. 51, no. 1, pp. 3–11, Jan. 2019. doi: 10.1080/02791072.2018.1557355. Abstract
     Ayahuasca is a beverage obtained from decoctions of the liana Banisteriopsis caapi plus the shrub Psychotria viridis. This beverage contains a combination of monoamine oxidase inhibitors (harmine, harmaline, and tetrahydroharmine) and N,N-dimethyltryptamine, the main substance responsible for its visionary effect. The ritualistic use of ayahuasca is becoming a global phenomenon. Most members of ayahuasca churches consume this beverage throughout their life, and many reports have discussed the therapeutic potential of this beverage. Ayahuasca is consumed orally, and the liver, as the major organ for the metabolism and detoxification of xenobiotics absorbed from the alimentary tract, may be susceptible to injury by compounds present in the ayahuasca decoction. In this study, we evaluated biochemical parameters related to hepatic damage in the serum of 22 volunteers who consumed ayahuasca twice a month or more for at least one year. There was no significant alteration in the following parameters: alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, bilirubin, creatinine, urea, lactate dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase, and gamma glutamyl transferase. These findings indicate that chronic ayahuasca consumption in a religious context apparently does not affect hepatic function.
372. J. K. A. Melo et al., “Poisonous Plants for Ruminants in the Dairy Region of Pernambuco, Northeastern Brazil,” Pesquisa Veterinária Brasileira, vol. 41, p. e06807, Apr. 2021. doi: 10.1590/1678-5150-PVB-6807. Abstract
     ABSTRACT: A survey carried out in the dairy region of Pernambuco was conducted to determine the most important poisonous plants for ruminants in the region. A total of 95 farmers from 19 municipalities were interviewed and the grazing areas of ruminants were inspected. According to the survey, the most important poisonous plants for ruminants were Manihot esculenta, Palicourea aeneofusca, Brachiaria decumbens, Indigofera suffruticosa, Ricinus communis and Cestrum axillare. Less reported classes of poisonous plants included nephrotoxic plants and plants that cause abortions or congenic malformations. Psychotria hoffmannseggiana, Psychotria colorata and Psychotria capitata were reported by farmers as the cause of sudden death in cattle. These plants should be better investigated to evaluate their importance as the cause of cattle deaths.
373. A. Menéndez-Yuffá and E. G. De Garcia, “Coffea Species (Coffee),” in Trees IV, Springer, 1996, pp. 95–119. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-662-10617-4_6. Abstract
     Coffee is a beverage appreciated all over the world, and therefore it is an important product in the international market, and generates a high income in the economy of several countries. The coffee-producing zones are in tropical and subtropical regions; the major coffee producers are: Brazil, Colombia, Indonesia, the Ivory Coast, Ethiopia, Mexico, Guatemala, Costa Rica, India, El Salvador, Uganda, Ecuador, Honduras, and the Philippines (data from FAO for 1992, Table 1).
374. A. Menéndez-Yuffá, D. Barry-Etienne, B. Bertrand, F. Georget, and H. Etienne, “A Comparative Analysis of the Development and Quality of Nursery Plants Derived from Somatic Embryogenesis and from Seedlings for Large-Scale Propagation of Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.),” Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture (PCTOC), vol. 102, no. 3, pp. 297–307, 2010. doi: 10.1007/s11240-010-9734-4. Abstract
     Plants of Coffea arabica L. derived via somatic embryogenesis, namely, somaclones, were evaluated with C. arabica seedlings grown in the nursery. At the time of their transfer to the nursery, somaclones of C. arabica cvs. Caturra and Costa Rica 95 (Catimor) were smaller and less vigorous than seedlings of the same cultivars. Following an initial slow growth for a period of 10 weeks, somaclones began to grow faster than seedlings until both groups of plants were equal in size at 21 weeks (entire duration of growth in the nursery). Comparisons of aerial and root systems of 30-cm long somaclones and seedlings of two cultivars revealed that plants of somaclones were more vigorous than seedlings, based on the higher number of leaves (13–16 vs. 9), larger leaf area (1060–1280 vs. 730–890 cm2), and greater dry weight of aerial organs (8.5–12 vs. 7.0–7.5 g). For cv. Caturra, the root dry weight of somaclones was significantly greater than that of seedlings (2.7 vs. 1.9 g) and was attributable to the large diameter roots (>0.5 mm). Analysis of 176,000 F1 hybrid somaclones revealed that these exhibited more heterogeneous growth than did the seedlings derived from zygotic embryos; moreover, there was a genotype effect. Almost 9–20% of somaclones required an additional 3–4 months of growth in the nursery, and 8–12% were culled for other undesirable horticultural attributes. Only 0.10–0.23% of somaclones displayed variant phenotypes. The observed somaclone vigor in the nursery was carried over to field performance as these plants were more precocious than seedlings and yielded coffee beans 1 year earlier than seedlings.
375. P. E. Menezes-Silva et al., “Photosynthetic and Metabolic Acclimation to Repeated Drought Events Play Key Roles in Drought Tolerance in Coffee,” Journal of Experimental Botany, vol. 68, no. 15, pp. 4309–4322, Sep. 2017. doi: 10.1093/jxb/erx211. Abstract
     Over the last decades, most information on the mechanisms underlying tolerance to drought has been gained by considering this stress as a single event that happens just once in the life of a plant, in contrast to what occurs under natural conditions where recurrent drought episodes are the rule. Here we explored mechanisms of drought tolerance in coffee (Coffea canephora) plants from a broader perspective, integrating key aspects of plant physiology and biochemistry. We show that plants exposed to multiple drought events displayed higher photosynthetic rates, which were largely accounted for by biochemical rather than diffusive or hydraulic factors, than those submitted to drought for the first time. Indeed, these plants displayed higher activities of RuBisCO and other enzymes associated with carbon and antioxidant metabolism. Acclimation to multiple drought events involved the expression of trainable genes related to drought tolerance and was also associated with a deep metabolite reprogramming with concordant alterations in central metabolic processes such as respiration and photorespiration. Our results demonstrate that plants exposed to multiple drought cycles can develop a differential acclimation that potentiates their defence mechanisms, allowing them to be kept in an ‘alert state’ to successfully cope with further drought events.
376. J. N. Mesquita-Neto et al., “Pollen Flow and Pollinator Sharing among Synchronopatric Species of Psychotria (Rubiaceae),” Plant Systematics and Evolution, vol. 304, no. 8, pp. 943–953, Oct. 2018. doi: 10.1007/s00606-018-1527-y. Abstract
     Sympatric plant species that flower at the same time in highly seasonal environments are subject to competitive interference. Many species of the genus Psychotria (Rubiaceae) are sympatric and have an aggregated flowering period, which may have a strong influence on interactions among these species and their pollinators. We assessed the strategies of sympatric species of Psychotria to segregate or share pollinators, and the consequences for intra- and interspecific pollen flow. We sampled pollinators and analyzed flowering phenology, floral tube length, pollinator tongue length and floral nectar production of three sympatric species of Psychotria in the understory of a tropical forest in Brazil. We also marked flowers with fluorescent powder to monitor the flow of pollen. The studied species of Psychotria exhibited a short synchronous flowering period, with the sharing of pollinators and interspecific pollen exchange. The prevalence of shared or unshared pollinators and of intra- or interspecific pollen exchange varied among the studied species. Variation in floral tube length and nectar was not enough to hamper the sharing of most pollinators and pollen flow between Psychotria nitidula and P. hoffmannseggiana. Non-shared pollinators were more common in flowers of P. prunifolia, probably due to its longer floral tube, which can impede the access of shared pollinators. The higher offer of floral nectar by P. prunifolia makes this species more attractive to a greater number of flower visitors. Pollinator sharing seems to have no negative effect on intraspecific pollen flow and on the reproductive success of the studied synchronopatric species of Psychotria.
377. G. R. B. Miranda, R. J. Guimarães, V. P. Campos, É. P. Botrel, G. R. R. Almeida, and R. G. Gonzalez, “Alternative methods of substrate disinfection to prepare coffee seedlings (Coffea arabica L.).,” Coffee Science, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 168–174, 2007. http://repositorio.ufla.br/jspui/handle/1/1403. Abstract
     Searching for an efficient product or method of substrate disinfection to produce coffee seedlings (Coffea arabica L.), this work evaluated the effect of different products in the preparation of the substrate for seedlings in polyetilene bags, in a nursery house at Universidade Federal de Lavras, Lavras, MG-Brazil. Thirteen modes of substrate disinfection were tested in a randomized block design...
378. O. F. de Miranda, “Avaliação da variação morfológica, anatômica e fitoquímica de Banisteriopsis caapi (Spruce ex Griseb.) C.v. Morton e Psychotria viridis Ruiz & Pav em diferentes ambientes, teor de alcaloides e citotoxicidade do chá Ayahuasca,” text, Universidade de São Paulo, 2020. doi: 10.11606/T.11.2020.tde-12022021-101623. Abstract
     B. caapi e P. viridis são plantas de origem amazônica e as principais espécies preconizados para preparação do chá Ayahuasca. Um chá com efeitos enteogênico e psicotrópico de uso milenar pelos povos indígenas da Amazônia, preparado pela decocção de caules de B. Caapi, que apresenta os alcaloides β-carbolínicos harmina (HRM), harmalina (HRL) e tetrahidrohramina (THH), e folhas de P. viridis que contém o alcaloide NN-dimetiltriptamina (DMT). Atualmente, Ayahuasca está em crescente expansão de uso como sacramento religioso em nível mundial, e junto com seu potencial farmacológico no campo da neurológia e psiquiatria tem fomentado um número expressivo de pesquisas científicas. Os resultados científicos têm evidenciado que Ayahuasca consumido em nível mundial, principalmente Europa e América do Norte, apresenta uma ampla variação no teor dos alcaloides bioativos, que afeta diretamente o potencial enteogênico e farmacológico do chá. Porém, a despeito da importância desse chá e das plantas que o compõem, até recentemente, as pesquisas científicas eram focadas somente no chá Ayahuasca, não havia estudo da relação planta-ambiente e das alterações morfológicas, anatômicas e fitoquímicas, que podem ser as causas subjacentes das variações no teor dos alcaloides na Ayahuasca preparado com plantas de diversos ambientes. Da mesma forma, não foi encontrado nenhum estudo desenvolvendo um método de pré-processamento e secagem das plantas da Ayahuasca que permita sua exportação e contribua com a segurança de uso desse chá. Portanto, os objetivos desse trabalho foram: i. Avaliar as alterações nas características organográficas, anatômicas e histoquímicas das folhas de três populações de P. viridis cultivadas em diferentes condições ambientais no estado de São Paulo; ii. Verificar as variações na morfologia, anatomia, histoquímica e teor de alcaloides apresentadas por folhas de P. viridis cultivadas em ecossistemas de Terra-firme (TF) e Campinarana (CAMP) do bioma Amazônia; iii. Verificar as diferenças morfológicas, anatômicas, histoquímicas e a variação no teor dos alcaloides em caules de B. caapi coletados em dois ecossistemas com diferentes características ambientais na Amazônia; iv. Determinar os parâmetros para a padronização da matéria-prima vegetal utilizadas no preparo do chá Ayahuasca tradicional: temperatura ideal de secagem para as plantas, teor e proporção dos alcaloides DMT, HRM, HRL e THH em Ayahuascas preparado com plantas após processo de secagem, além de avaliar o potencial citotóxico de Ayahuasca preparado com plantas in natura e desidratadas sobre células de HaCaT (queratinócitos humanos). Para todas as análises morfológicas, anatômicas e histoquímicas de caules de B. caapi e folhas de P. viridis foram utilizados microscópio de luz e microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV); As análises fitoquímicas foram realizadas usando extratos etanólicos de folhas e caules separadamente, e chá Ayahuasca preparado com plantas in natura e após processamento de secagem sob temperaturas de 40, 43, 45, 50, 60°C e ao sol. A concentração dos compostos bioativos foi determinada por Cromatografia Liquida de Alta Eficiência com Detector UV-vis com Arranjo de Diodos (CLAE-DAD), a citotoxicidade in vitro foi avaliada com exposição das amostras de chá Ayahuasca em células HaCaT e, o agente antineoplásico cloridrato de doxorrubicina foi usado como controle positivo. Em folhas de P. viridis tanto de regiões extra-amazônica quanto amazônica as alterações encontradas estão diretamente relacionadas ao esforço adaptativo da espécie à disponibilidade hídrica do ambiente e mostram que, estresse hídrico prolongando causa alterações anatômicas que interferem no teor de alcaloides na espécie. Com relação a B.caapi, foram encontradas alterações no sistema condutor relacionados à alterações nas características do ambiente, além disso, as plantas do ecossistema de Campinarana exibiram teor de alcaloides mais elevado, revelando relação positiva do teor dos alcaloides β-carbolínicos com a disponibilidade hídrica do ambiente. As variações nas concentrações de DMT, HRL, HRM e THH no chá Ayahuasca sofrem influências do ambiente de origem das plantas. O processo de secagem mais adequado, foi alcançado em estufa de circulação forçada com temperaturas de 43°C para folhas e 45°C para caules. A Ayahuasca, nas concentrações testadas, não apresenta citotoxicidade celular relacionada a DMT, HRM, HRML e THH para queratinócitos humanos.
379. O. F. de Miranda, S. E. X. F. De Souza, R. J. Milan, A. B. Bueno, and M. de Almeida, “Influence of Environment on the Leaf Morpho-Anatomy and Histochemical of the Ayahuasca Leaf: Populations Cultivated in Extra-Amazonian Regions,” Acta Scientiarum. Biological Sciences, vol. 42, p. e50369, Apr. 2020. doi: 10.4025/actascibiolsci.v42i1.50369. Abstract
     Psychotria viridis Ruiz & Pav. (Rubiaceae) occurs naturally throughout the Amazon and it is traditionally used by indigenous communities, being incorporated into religious use in urban contexts over the last few decades. It is known and cultivated in many regions of South America for possessing valuable bioactive alkaloids. In this paper, we described P. viridis leaf morphology, anatomy and histochemistry from three populations cultivated in the southeastern Brazil, in order to identify possible adaptations to local environment and management. All plants presented terminal stipules and basic morpho-anatomical patterns of leaves, consistent with most species of the genus, as heterogeneous dorsiventral mesophyll, uniseriate epidermis, presents large cells with prominent vacuoles and druses. Unicellular non-glandular trichomes and multicellular starry trichomes were present in the primary and secondary veins. Amphi-hypostomatic leaf pattern, not yet described for the species, was common in all studied plants. Variation in the presence of domatia in the same population indicates that this structure cannot be used for taxonomic determination of P. viridis, as already described for other species of the genus. Presence of secretory ducts and reduction in stomata density and leaf area represent the main morpho-anatomic adaptations of plants from drier and warmer climates. Histochemical tests were positive for alkaloids, polysaccharides, proteins and phenolic compounds, being negative for starch only in plants subjected to water stress. We concluded that the morpho-anatomical and histochemical alterations found in the plants of this study resulted from seasonal water deficit adaptations and to maintain or attract mutualistic organisms.
380. M. K. Mishra, “Genetic Resources and Breeding of Coffee (Coffea Spp.),” in Advances in Plant Breeding Strategies: Nut and Beverage Crops, vol. 4, J. M. Al-Khayri, S. M. Jain, and D. V. Johnson, Eds. Springer, 2019, pp. 475–515. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23112-5. Abstract
     Coffee is an important agricultural export commodity in many Asian, African and Latin American countries. It provides a livelihood for more than 125 million people worldwide. The genus Coffea comprises more than 125 species of which only 2 species Coffea arabica (arabica coffee) and C. canephora (robusta coffee) are commercially cultivated for beverage production. Climate change pres- ents unprecedented challenges to sustainable coffee cultivation on a global scale. Besides, both arabica and robusta coffee are subjected to biotic and abiotic stress conditions that limit their production and productivity. Although conventional breeding approaches are followed to attenuate some of these problems, they were slow and time-consuming. Furthermore, arabica coffee has a narrow genetic base and needs to be addressed immediately by incorporating diverse germplasm with potential agronomic values, using focused breeding programs. In both arabica and robusta, the full potential of germplasm has not been exploited. Recent progress in the biotechnological field particularly on molecular markers and new generation sequencing platform hold great promise to discover new genes and accelerate coffee breeding programs. The progress achieved in coffee transgenic technology also has unparalleled opportunities to develop new cultivars with improved agronomic traits. Recent progress in gene editing techniques has a significant impact on the genetic improvement of coffee. This chapter provides current and innovative information about coffee’s origin and distribution, genetic resource diversity and conventional breeding strategies and application. Current advances in the field of tissue culture, genetic transformation, gene editing and molecular breeding are also discussed.
381. M. K. Mishra, J. D. Padma, N. S. Prakash, and M. S. Screenivasan, “Leaf Flavonoid Profiles in Different Cytotypes of Coffea Arabica,” in PLACROSYM, Indian Cardamom Research Institute, 1993, pp. 258–263.
382. M. K. Mishra and A. Slater, “Recent Advances in the Genetic Transformation of Coffee,” Biotechnology Research International, vol. 2012, p. e580857, Aug. 2012. doi: 10.1155/2012/580857. Abstract
     Coffee is one of the most important plantation crops, grown in about 80 countries across the world. The genus Coffea comprises approximately 100 species of which only two species, that is, Coffea arabica (commonly known as arabica coffee) and Coffea canephora (known as robusta coffee), are commercially cultivated. Genetic improvement of coffee through traditional breeding is slow due to the perennial nature of the plant. Genetic transformation has tremendous potential in developing improved coffee varieties with desired agronomic traits, which are otherwise difficult to achieve through traditional breeding. During the last twenty years, significant progress has been made in coffee biotechnology, particularly in the area of transgenic technology. This paper provides a detailed account of the advances made in the genetic transformation of coffee and their potential applications.
383. M. K. Mishra, P. Dandamudi, S. P. Nayani, S. S. Munikoti, and S. S. Chelukunda, “Variability in Stomatal Features and Leaf Venation Pattern in Indian Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Cultivars and Their Functional Significance.,” Botanica Serbica, vol. 35, no. 2, 2011. https://botanicaserbica.bio.bg.ac.rs/2011_35_2.html#a539. Abstract
     Several stomatal characteristics viz. stomatal frequency, epidermal cell frequency, stomatal index, leaf area served per stoma, stomatal plastid number and stomatal guard cell length and leaf architecture including major and minor venation pattern was studied in ten Indian arabica (Coffea arabica L.) cultivars. Significant variation was observed for all stomatal characteristics as well as the leaf venation pattern such as leaf size, areole size, number of vein endings entering the areole and vein islets termination number in diff erent cultivars and is attributed to their origin involving different parents and selection pressure. Th e coeffi cient of variability calculated for all the stomatal features indicated that both stomatal guard cell length and stomatal plastid number were least variable whereas leaf area served per stoma was the most variable character among cultivars. Among all the stomatal features, high heritability (h²) was observed for epidermal cell frequency. In all the cultivars, leaves were simple opposite with moderate mid-vein and entire margins. The major venation pattern was camptodromous type with festooned brochidodromous secondaries. Intersecondary veins were noticed in all cultivars. The marginal ultimate venation was either incomplete or incompletely looped. The functional significance of stomatal features and leaf vein architecture is discussed.
384. N. N. Mohamad Zuldin, I. M. Said, N. Mohd Noor, Z. Zainal, C. Jin Kiat, and I. Ismail, “Induction and Analysis of the Alkaloid Mitragynine Content of a Mitragyna Speciosa Suspension Culture System upon Elicitation and Precursor Feeding,” The Scientific World Journal, vol. 2013, p. e209434, Aug. 2013. doi: 10.1155/2013/209434. Abstract
     This study aimed to determine the effects of different concentrations and combinations of the phytohormones 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D), kinetin, 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP), and 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) on callus induction and to demonstrate the role of elicitors and exogenous precursors on the production of mitragynine in a Mitragyna speciosa suspension culture. The best callus induction was achieved from petiole explants cultured on WPM that was supplemented with 4 mg L−1 2, 4-D (70.83%). Calli were transferred to liquid media and agitated on rotary shakers to establish Mitragyna speciosa cell suspension cultures. The optimum settled cell volume was achieved in the presence of WPM that contained 3 mg L−1 2,4-D and 3% sucrose (  mL). The treatment of cultures with different concentrations of yeast extract and salicylic acid for different inoculation periods revealed that the highest mitragynine content as determined by HPLC was achieved from the culture treated with 250 mg L−1 yeast extract (  mg L−1) that was harvested on day 6 of culturing; salicylic acid showed low mitragynine content in all concentrations used. Tryptophan and loganin were used as exogenous precursors; the highest level of mitragynine production was achieved in cultures treated with 3 μM tryptophan and harvested at 6 days (  mg L−1).
385. A. Mohammed, W. Gebreselassie, and T. Nardos, “Effect of Effective Microorganisms (EM) Seed Treatment and Types of Potting Mix on the Emergence and Growth of Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Seedlings,” Agricultural Research, vol. 8, pp. 34–41, 2006. doi: 10.3923/ijar.2013.34.41. Abstract
     Coffee (Coffea arabica L.) is primarily propagated by seedlings and produced directly from seeds. Effective Microorganisms (EM) has been used for the purpose of improving the germination of different crops. This study was initiated to assess the effect of EM on emergence and subsequent growth of coffee seedlings in different potting mix as a media for growth. The study was conducted in Jimma, Ethiopia from November 2011 until June 2012. The experimental units were laid out in a 5x3 factorial arrangement with Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. The EM seed treatment had five levels of soaking h (3.5, 4.5, 5.5, 6.5 h and soaking in pure water for 72 h) while the potting mixes had three proportions of Forest Soil (FS) and EM Compost (EMC): (100% FS, 75% FS: 25% EMC and 50% FS: 50% EMC). The highest (76.47%) emergence was recorded from forest soil and EM compost mixture of 75:25 and seeds soaked in pure water for 72 h. Forest soil combined with a 4.5 h soaking of coffee seeds in EM solution resulted in the largest seedling height, number of primary branches and total dry matter. According to this study, EM solution may not be preferred than soaking in water as far as hastening of emergency is concerned. However, the use of forest soil as a pot media and soaking coffee seeds in EM solution for 4.5 h results in a relatively vigor coffee seedlings for transplanting.
386. J. M. C. Mondego et al., “An EST-Based Analysis Identifies New Genes and Reveals Distinctive Gene Expression Features of Coffea Arabica and Coffea Canephora,” BMC Plant Biology, vol. 11, no. 1, p. 30, Feb. 2011. doi: 10.1186/1471-2229-11-30. Abstract
     Coffee is one of the world’s most important crops; it is consumed worldwide and plays a significant role in the economy of producing countries. Coffea arabica and C. canephora are responsible for 70 and 30% of commercial production, respectively. C. arabica is an allotetraploid from a recent hybridization of the diploid species, C. canephora and C. eugenioides. C. arabica has lower genetic diversity and results in a higher quality beverage than C. canephora. Research initiatives have been launched to produce genomic and transcriptomic data about Coffea spp. as a strategy to improve breeding efficiency.
387. P. MOONGKHRUE, มุ่งเครือ ภัทรธิดาพร, M. Niyomdecha, นิยมเดชา มูฮำหมัด, and S. U. Science, “Purification and determination minimum concentration of Mitragynine from Mitragyna Speciosa Korth leaves by thin layer chromatography (TLC),” Thesis, Silpakorn University, 2019. http://ithesis-ir.su.ac.th:8080/jspui/handle/123456789/1925. Abstract
     Mitragynine is an alkaloid found in Mitragyna Speciosa Korth leaves, it was reported that the compound produced an effect on mine and central nervous. Thai villagers have used it for a long time as a traditional medicine to relieve tiredness and muscle fatigue, and to treat some common illnesses such as diarrhea, coughing, muscle pain, diabetes, and hypertension. The most among teenager of popular drugs abuse.  Mitragyna Speciosa is narcotic drugs under the Thai Narcotics Act B.E.2522. In the research interesting about method of extraction of Mitragynine from Mitragynine Speciosa Korth leaves. dentification with FT-IR, 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR. Qualitative analysis of  leaf, blade, midrib and petiole . In Kratom leaf 2.5 g of can be found mitragynine 6.325 mg. And minimum detection limited of Mitragynine the results showed  0.158 mg/ml
388. T. M. da S. Moraes et al., “Antimycobacterial Activity and Alkaloid Prospection of Psychotria Species (Rubiaceae) from the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest,” Planta Medica, vol. 77, no. 9, pp. 964–970, Jun. 2011. doi: 10.1055/s-0030-1250656. Abstract
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389. T. de F. S. Moraes et al., “Methanol Extract and N,N-Dimethyltryptamine from Psychotria Viridis Ruiz & Pav. Inhibit in Vitro the Zika Virus Infection.,” 2021. doi: 10.1007/s00705-021-05230-8. Abstract
     Zika virus (ZIKV) is a public health problem due to its association with serious fetal and neurological complications and the lack of antiviral agents and licensed vaccines against this virus. Surveillance studies have alerted about the potential occurrence of a new South American epidemic episode due to the recent circulation of an African ZIKV strain detected in Brazil. Therefore, it is essential to discover antiviral agents, including natural substances, that are capable of neutralizing the action of ZIKV. Several Psychotria species have antimicrobial and anti-infammatory properties. Thus, a methanol extract and dimethyltryptamine from Psychotria viridis were evaluated for their ability to inhibit ZIKV infection in vitro by measur- ing the efective concentration that protects 50% of cells and investigating their possible mechanisms of action. The tested samples showed antiviral activity against ZIKV. The extract showed virucidal activity, afecting viral and non-cellular ele- ments, inactivating the virus before infection or when it becomes extracellular after the second cycle of infection. It was also observed that both extract and dimethyltryptamine could inhibit the virus at intracellular stages of the viral cycle. In addition to dimethyltryptamine, it is believed that other compounds also contribute to the promising virucidal efect observed for the methanol extract. To our knowledge, this is the frst report of the activity of a methanolic extract and dimethyltryptamine from Psychotria viridis against cellular ZIKV infection. These two samples, extracted from natural sources, are potential candidates for use as antiviral drugs to inhibit ZIKV infections.
390. T. F. S. Moraes et al., “A Methanol Extract and N,N-Dimethyltryptamine from Psychotria Viridis Ruiz & Pav. Inhibit Zika Virus Infection in Vitro,” Archives of Virology, vol. 166, no. 12, pp. 3275–3287, Dec. 2021. doi: 10.1007/s00705-021-05230-8. Abstract
     Zika virus (ZIKV) is a public health problem due to its association with serious fetal and neurological complications and the lack of antiviral agents and licensed vaccines against this virus. Surveillance studies have alerted about the potential occurrence of a new South American epidemic episode due to the recent circulation of an African ZIKV strain detected in Brazil. Therefore, it is essential to discover antiviral agents, including natural substances, that are capable of neutralizing the action of ZIKV. Several Psychotria species have antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties. Thus, a methanol extract and dimethyltryptamine from Psychotria viridis were evaluated for their ability to inhibit ZIKV infection in vitro by measuring the effective concentration that protects 50% of cells and investigating their possible mechanisms of action. The tested samples showed antiviral activity against ZIKV. The extract showed virucidal activity, affecting viral and non-cellular elements, inactivating the virus before infection or when it becomes extracellular after the second cycle of infection. It was also observed that both extract and dimethyltryptamine could inhibit the virus at intracellular stages of the viral cycle. In addition to dimethyltryptamine, it is believed that other compounds also contribute to the promising virucidal effect observed for the methanol extract. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the activity of a methanolic extract and dimethyltryptamine from Psychotria viridis against cellular ZIKV infection. These two samples, extracted from natural sources, are potential candidates for use as antiviral drugs to inhibit ZIKV infections.
391. G. A. B. K. Moraes, A. R. M. Chaves, S. C. V. Martins, R. S. Barros, and F. M. DaMatta, “Why Is It Better to Produce Coffee Seedlings in Full Sunlight than in the Shade? A Morphophysiological Approach,” Photosynthetica, vol. 48, no. 2, pp. 199–207, Jun. 2010. doi: 10.1007/s11099-010-0025-4. Abstract
     The coffee plant is native to shaded environments and its seedlings are often produced in shaded nurseries. However, some nursery managers, in an effort to improve the acclimation of seedlings to field conditions after transplantation, produce seedlings in full sun exposure. In this study, the morphological and physiological parameters of arabica coffee (Coffea arabica) seedlings produced in full sun (T1) and in shade (T2) were examined. The biomass accumulation and relative growth rate of T1 and T2 seedlings were similar. The T1 seedlings had less biomass allocation to shoots, a lower leaf mass ratio and a lower leaf area ratio; however, they had a greater net assimilation rate (rate of increase in plant mass per unit leaf area), which was associated with a greater net photosynthetic rate. There were no alterations in the concentrations of total chlorophylls or in the chlorophyll a/b ratio when comparing T1 and T2 seedlings. No indications of photoinhibition or photooxidative damage were observed in the T1 plants, which were shown to have a more robust antioxidant system than the T2 plants. Seedlings transferred from shade to full sun (T3) were not capable of utilising the incident extra light to fix CO2. These seedlings showed a remarkable nocturnal retention of zeaxanthin and a significantly increased deepoxidation state of the xanthophyll cycle, even at predawn, but the activity of antioxidant enzymes was lower than in the T1 and T2 plants. Despite the acclimation capacity of T3 seedlings to the new light environment, they exhibited chronic photoinhibition and considerable photooxidative damage throughout the seven days following the transfer to full sun exposure. We further discuss the practical implications of producing coffee seedlings in full sunlight and under shade.
392. W. L. Moreira and R. Ferraz-Almeida, “Development of Coffee Seedlings with Biostimulants,” Coffee Science, vol. 16, pp. e161896–e161896, Oct. 2021. doi: 10.25186/.v16i.1896. Abstract
     The production of sustainable coffee (Coffea sp.) has become an alternative to add value to coffee production, reaching new world markets and increasing the farmer’s profitability. Biostimulants have been presented as a tool to increase coffee production. The hypothesis is that the use of biostimulants improves the germination rate and the development of coffee seedlings. This study aims to compare and evaluate the application of biostimulants in the initial development of coffee seedlings. An experiment was carried out in Monte Carmelo, Minas Geras. Applications of biostimulants (i) 4-indole-3-ylbutyric acid + gibberellic acid + cinetina, AIA+AG+C; (ii) foliar fertilizer + algae, F+A; (iii) vegetal extracts + gibberellic acid, EV+AA were carried out on coffee seedlings. After 94 days of applying the biostimulants, monitored the length of the aerial part, the number of leaves, stem diameter, root biomass (pivoting, auxiliary and total). Results showed that the application of F+A promoted the greatest length of the aerial part, the number of leaves, and biomass of the roots. The application of AIA+AG+C showed the same performance as F+A in the number of leaves of the coffee seedlings. Given the results, we concluded that the application of biostimulants based on mixed foliar fertilizer + algae demonstrated to be a better alternative to increase the development of the aerial and root part of coffee seedlings. Key words: Coffea sp.; Organomineral; Root system; Phytohormones.
393. L. T. S. Moura and V. M. Maruo, “Aspectos farmacológicos e toxicológicos de Psychotria colorata revisão,” R. cient. eletr. Med. Vet., pp. 1–16, 2014. http://faef.revista.inf.br/imagens_arquivos/arquivos_destaque/RlVaBqh06nvKOOw_2014-8-11-8-36-16.pdf.
394. S. Moura, F. G. Carvalho, C. D. R. de Oliveira, E. Pinto, and M. Yonamine, “qNMR: An Applicable Method for the Determination of Dimethyltryptamine in Ayahuasca, a Psychoactive Plant Preparation,” Phytochemistry Letters, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 79–83, Jun. 2010. doi: 10.1016/j.phytol.2009.12.004. Abstract
     Ayahuasca is an Amazonian plant beverage obtained by infusing the pounded stems of Banisteriopsis caapi in combination with the leaves of Psychotria viridis. P. viridis contains the psychedelic indole N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT). This association has a wide range of use in religious rituals around the world. In the present work, an easy, fast and non-destructive method by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance of proton (1H NMR) for quantification of DMT in ayahuasca samples was developed and validated. 2,5-Dimethoxybenzaldehyde (DMBO) was used as internal standard (IS). For this purpose, the area ratios produced by protons of DMT (N(CH3)2) at 2.70ppm, singlet, (6H) and for DMBO (Ar(OCH3)2) at 3.80 and 3.89ppm, doublet, (6H) were used for quantification. The lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) was 12.5μg/mL and a good intra-assay precision was also obtained (relative standard deviation<5.1%). The present 1H NMR method is not time consuming and can be readily applied to monitor this tryptamine in plant preparations. We believe that qNMR can be used for identification and quantification of many plant-based products and metabolites with important advantages, while comparing with other analytical techniques.
395. S. M.p.g, F. M.r, A. E.m, R. E, and C. L.p, “Asexual Propagation Of Psychotria Viridis (ruiz & Pavon) Via Leaf Cutting [propagação Assexuada De Chacrona (psychotria Viridis Ruiz & Pavon) Via Estaquia Foliar],” Scopus, 2012. http://repositorio.unicamp.br/jspui/handle/REPOSIP/90333. Abstract
     This study aimed to assess the asexual propagation of Psychotria viridis by leaf cuttings. The treatments were: A - Whole leaf cuttings, B - leaf cuttings with the top third cut off; C - with the lower third of the cuttings removed; D - with cuts on the primary vein of leaf cuttings, and E - poles with cuts on the leaf’s secondary veins. The cuttings were immersed in distilled water for a period of 70 days. In all the treatments, the rooting was observed to occur in the region of the cut, or the place where the incision in the vein was. Current assay shows the feasibilities of Psychotria viridis leaf stalks and concludes that cuttings at the nerve ends highlight rooting in so far as the leaf stalks remain in permanent contact with the plant.
396. E. M. Mudge and P. N. Brown, “Determination of Alkaloids in Mitragyna Speciosa (Kratom) Raw Materials and Dietary Supplements by HPLC-UV: Single-Laboratory Validation, First Action 2017.14,” Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL, vol. 101, no. 4, pp. 964–965, Jul. 2018. doi: 10.5740/jaoacint.18-0026. Abstract
     Abstract The AOAC Expert Review Panel (ERP) approved a method for the quantitation of alkaloids in Mitragyna speciosa for consideration as First Action Official MethodSM status. The previously published method summarized a single-laboratory validation of two alkaloids, mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine, in raw materials and finished products. The methods performance was compared with the AOAC Standard Method Performance Requirement 2015.008. With repeatability precision (RSDr) ranging from 0.51 to 0.95% and recoveries from 93.6 to 98.9% in the different product matrices, the ERP adopted the method and provided recommendations for achieving Final Action status.
397. D. Muleta, “Microbial Inputs in Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Production Systems, Southwestern Ethiopia,” PhD thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, 2007. https://pub.epsilon.slu.se/1657/. Abstract
     Arabica coffee is the key cash crop and top mainstay of the Ethiopian economy and requires sustainable production methods. Southwestern natural forests, the site of this study, are believed to be the centre of origin and diversity for Coffea arabica and still harbour wild Arabica coffee that may serve as an important gene pool for future breeding. Cost reductions, sustainability and quality improvement are now the major priorities in coffee production systems and require organic growing of coffee. Current developments in sustainability involve rational exploitation of soil microbial activities that positively affect plant growth and this study examines this possibility. The composition of coffee shade tree species and density of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) spores and coffee-associated rhizobacteria in different coffee production systems in southwestern Ethiopia were investigated. The main objectives were to: 1) systematically identify the dominant coffee shade tree species; 2) quantify and characterize AMF populations with respect to spatial distribution; 3) screen for beneficial rhizobacteria (microbial biofertilizers and biocontrol agents), particularly in the rhizosphere of coffee plants; and 4) characterize rhizobacterial isolates of particular interest using molecular tools (polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) analysis and 16S rDNA gene sequencing). Sampling and determination of microbial functional characteristics followed standard methods. Nineteen dominant shade tree species belonging to 14 plant families were identified, with the tree legume (Millettia ferruginea) dominating. All soil samples contained AMF spores and members of the Glomeromycota, Glomus spp. dominating. AMF spore density was affected by sampling point, site, depth, shade tree species and shade tree/coffee plant age. Coffee-associated rhizobacterial isolates showed multiple beneficial traits (phosphate solubilization, production of organic acids, siderophores, indoleacetic acid, hydrogen cyanide, lytic enzymes and degradation of an ethylene precursor). Many isolates also revealed a potent inhibitory effect against emerging fungal coffee pathogens such as Fusarium xylarioides, F. stilboides and F. oxysporum. According to in vitro studies Bacillus, Erwinia, Ochrobactrum, Pseudomonas, and Serratia spp. were the most important isolates to act as potential biofertilizers, biocontrol agents or both. Thus, these indigenous isolates deserve particular attention and further greenhouse and field trials could ascertain their future applicability for inoculum development.
398. B. Muniswamy, B. Kosaraju, M. K. Mishra, and R. Yenugula, “Field Performance and Genetic Fidelity of Micropropagated Plants of Coffea Canephora (Pierre Ex A. Froehner),” Open Life Sciences, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 1–11, 2017. doi: 10.1515/biol-2017-0001/html. Abstract
     This study was conducted to compare the growth and yield of one of the commercial hybrid coffee cultivars (Coffea congensis x Coffea canephora) of robusta coffee established from somatic embryogenesis as well as conventional seedlings. Results indicated no statistically significant differences in the growth pattern or the cumulative yield between the somatic embryogenesis derived plants and the seedlings. The genetic fidelity of somatic embryogenesis derived plants and the mother plant was tested using sequence related amplified polymorphism (SRAP) markers. A total of 24 SRAP primers were employed for DNA analysis which produced a total of 153 clear, distinct and reproducible amplicons of variable size. Out of 24 SRAP primers, 9 primers produced amplification patterns which are identical between the mother plants and plants derived from somatic embryogenesis. Cluster analysis revealed more than 95% genetic similarity between the somatic embryogenesis derived plants and the mother plants indicating a high degree of genetic fidelity. The present study clearly demonstrates the usefulness of SRAP markers in genetic fidelity analysis of coffee.
399. B. Muniswamy and H. L. Sreenath, “Studies on Preservation of Encapsulated Zygotic Embryos versus Seeds of Coffea Canephora.,” Journal of Coffee Research, vol. 28, no. 1-2, pp. 20–24, 2000. http://orton.catie.ac.cr/cgi-bin/wxis.exe/?IsisScript=ORTON.xis&cantidad=1&expresion=QUINETINA. Abstract
     The zygotic embryos of C. canephora (cv. S.274) were encapsulated in 2 percent sodium alginate with half strength MS salts containing 1 mg/litre of ABA (abscisic acid). These beads were preserved in dark under growth room condition. For comparing the viability of encapsulated embryos, seeds of the same mother plant were selected and packed in polythene bags and were stored under room temperature. To test the germination percentage and viability, preserved encapsulated embryos were cultured on half strengthMS medium supplemented with 0.1 mg/litre of BAP (benzyladenine) at monthly intervals. Simultaneously, the seeds of the same mother plant were sown in soil. The preserved encapsulated zygotic embryos showed good germination up to 12 months and developed into plantlets after the fourth subculture at 35-45 days intervals on half strength MS medium with 0.1 mg/litre of kinetin. However, seeds of the same parent showed good germination only up to 4 months beyond which the germination decreased. After 7 monthsof storage, seeds lost their viability and none of them could germinate. The importance of the present results is discussed.
400. C. R. D. Murucci et al., “Evaluation of the Therapeutic Neurotoxic Effects of the Use of Ayahuasca by Depressive Patients,” Revista Contemporânea, vol. 3, no. 9, pp. 13609–13623, Sep. 2023. doi: 10.56083/RCV3N9-011. Abstract
     Ayahuasca is a tea used in original indigenous rituals with the aim of expanding the mind and consciousness. Some studies have pointed to Ayahuasca as a potent antidepressant with reduced side effects when compared to other conventional synthetic allopathic treatments. Over the years, tea has come to be known by both the popular community and the scientific community. The species used are Psychotria viridis and Banisteriopsis caapi, the leaves of Psychotria viridis have around 0.1% to 0.6% DMT. Psychotria viridis alkaloid, when ingested through Ayahuasca, exerts an agonist effect on 5-HT2A receptors in the brain, while Banisteriopsis caapi has a high concentration of β-carboline alkaloids such as Harmine, Harmaline and tetrahydroarmine, responsible for inhibiting monoamine oxidase (MAO), however, as well as the difficulties encountered in studies associated with the therapeutic benefits of the Cannabis sativa plant, especially in the face of traditional conservative movements, there are also few studies that indicate or position themselves on the neurotoxic and therapeutic potential, especially when used as possible treatments for the depression. Therefore, new natural therapies, including Ayahuasca, should be investigated for their toxic and therapeutic potential so that, as soon as safe parameters are identified, they can serve society, especially for depressive patients.
401. N. Murvanidze, J. Nisler, O. Leroux, and S. P. O. Werbrouck, “Cytokinin Oxidase/Dehydrogenase Inhibitors Stimulate 2iP to Induce Direct Somatic Embryogenesis in Coffea Arabica,” Plant Growth Regulation, vol. 94, no. 2, pp. 195–200, 2021. doi: 10.1007/s10725-021-00708-6. Abstract
     Somatic embryogenesis in Coffea spp. is important for mass production and genetic engineering. Coffee is an exceptional case, as somatic embryogenesis can be induced by applying a cytokinin such as 2iP as the only plant growth regulator. 1-(2-(2-Hydroxyethyl)phenyl)-3-(3-(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl)urea (3TFM-2HE) and 1-(3-bromo-5-(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl)-3-(2-(2-hydroxyethyl)phenyl)urea (3TFM,5Br-2HE) are two newly designed cytokinin oxidase/dehydrogenase inhibitors (CKX) from the diphenylurea group. We used a Coffea arabica leaf disks bioassay to demonstrate the indirect somatic embryo induction potential of these compounds. The leaf disks were incubated on modified Murashige and Skoog (MS) semi-solid medium in which 3TFM-2HE or 3TFM,5Br-2HE were combined with N6-(2-isopentenyl)adenine (2iP). Although these compounds do not possess intrinsic cytokinin activity, they enhanced the activity of 2iP, resulting in direct somatic embryogenesis after seven weeks. The best results were obtained with 1 µM 3TFM-2HE and 5 or 10 µM 2iP. Maturation of somatic embryos into fully developed plants took place on medium supplemented with 0.5 µM kinetin and the somatic embryos developed true leaves and a root system.
402. D. H. S. Nadaleti, J. C. de R. Abrahão, V. T. Andrade, M. R. Malta, C. E. Botelho, and G. R. Carvalho, “Selection Strategy For The Beverage Sensory Characterization In A Large Arabica Coffee Germplasm Bank,” In Review, Preprint, Sep. 2021. doi: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-897631/v1. Abstract
     Abstract This study proposes a selection strategy to be applied to a large number of coffee accessions, which can be useful when exploring many genotypes in breeding programs for beverage quality. Over three consecutive years, 270 Arabica coffee accessions from the Germplasm Bank of Minas Gerais, Brazil, were sensorially characterized. At the end of this period, the 20 genotypes with the greatest potential for specialty coffee production were selected, which were subjected to a second sensory characterization. Additionally, we determined the genetic correlations between the attributes that make up the final beverage score. We did not identify an attribute that was more important than the others in the organoleptic performance of the studied accessions. Through the proposed method, we identified genetic variation in our original population and selected five accessions with beverage quality considered excellent according to the SCA classification. These accessions were planted in field conditions of highly specialized farms to study their interaction with the cultivation environment and to promote the increase in production of such coffees. Additionally, the five selected accessions are being used in crosses with elite cultivars create new segregating populations. We conclude that estimation of the heritable variation of each accession, the use over the years of common check cultivars with known performance, and extremely care of experimental precision in the entire processes warrant fair comparisons.
403. E. J. Naranjo, A. I. Urrea, and L. Atehortua, “Avances en la propagación vía embriogénesis somática de Psychotria ipecacuanha (Brot.) Stokes, planta medicinal en peligro crítico,” Revista Colombiana de Biotecnología, vol. 16, no. 1, p. 86, Jun. 2014. doi: 10.15446/rev.colomb.biote.v16n1.44228. Abstract
     Psychotria ipecacuanha (Brot.) Stokes (Rubiaceae Juss), is a specie with known medicinal properties. This species is critically endangered due to overexploitation of natural populations.
404. K. Nasiro, D. T. Shimber, and P. A. Mohammed, “Germination and Seedling Growth Rate of Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Seeds as Influenced by Initial Seed Moisture Content, Storage Time and Storage Condition,” Food Science and Quality Management, vol. 70, pp. 17–24, 2017. https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/FSQM/article/view/40240. Abstract
     Coffee seeds have been considered intermediate storage behavior with varying results. It is highly desirable that seeds are stored safely to optimize coffee seedling production at the appropriate time and season with ideal climatic conditions for planting in the field. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of time of storage and initial seed moisture content on germination and seedling emergence rate of coffee seeds. In this experiment, the effects of time of storage with six levels and initial seed moisture content with four levels on coffee seed germination and early seedling growth were studied in a split-plot factorial design. The data collected were subjected to Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using statistical analysis system version 9.2 software (SAS, 2009). Treatment means were separated using LSD at 0.05 probability level. The present findings revealed that seed germination and seedling emergence rate were highest at initial time of storage. Seeds dried to 12% moisture content showed inferior performance throughout the trial period. Storage temperature, time of storage and initial seed moisture contents showed highly significant main and interaction effects and seeds dried to intermediate moisture level (17 & 22%), stored under cold temperature and sown at early times resulted in enhanced germination percentage and field emergence rate. Hence, it is advisable drying coffee seeds to about 17% to 22% moisture contents and keep under storage with relatively lower temperatures at about 15oC for not more than six months of storage. As the present finding was limited to single cultivar and done under specific environmental condition further investigation is significant.
405. K. Nasiro, “Initial Seed Moisture Content, Storage Temperature and Storage Duration Influenced Arabica Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Seedling Performances.,” International Journal of Agriculture and Biosciences, vol. 9, no. 6, pp. 278–283, 2020. http://www.ijagbio.com/pdf-files/volume-9-no-6-2020/278-283.pdf. Abstract
     Coffee is one of the most important agricultural products in the international market and many countries are involved in its production, trade or consumption. Arabica coffee is self-pollinated and homozygous, they are normally propagated by seeds. Seeds have been considered intermediate storage behavior with varying results. It is highly desirable that seeds are stored safely to optimize coffee seedling production at the appropriate time and season with ideal climatic conditions for planting in the field. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of storage temperature, time of storage and initial seed moisture content on early seedling performances of coffee seeds and to determine the appropriate seed handling method. In this experiment, the influence of initial seed moisture content with four levels (12, 17, 22 & 27%) storage temperature (ST) with two levels (15 o C & ambient), time of storage with six levels (sowing after 1,2,3,4,5 & 6 months) and on coffee seedling growth stages were studied in a split-split-plot factorial design. The data collected were subjected to Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using statistical analysis system version 9.2 software (SAS, 2009). Treatment means were separated using LSD at 0.05 probability level. The present findings of storage environment with cold temperature (15 o C) accelerated seedling growth much better than did ambient temperature condition. All tested seedling growth stages were faster at initial time of storage. After third month of storage, seed quality drastically reduced especially under ambient storage condition. Seeds dried to 12% moisture content showed delay of germination and growth throughout the trial period. Seeds with 27% initial moisture content took shorter time to reach at different growth stages at initial storage time but when aged took much time. Storage temperature, time of storage and initial seed moisture contents showed highly significant main and interaction effects and seeds dried to intermediate moisture level (17 & 22%), stored under cold temperature and sown at early times resulted in enhanced seedling growth. Hence, the current study suggests drying coffee seeds to 17% to 22% moisture contents and store under relatively lower temperatures at about 15 o C for not more than six months of storage. As the present finding was limited to single cultivar and specific environmental condition further investigation is significant.
406. A. T. Netto, E. Campostrini, J. G. de Oliveira, and R. E. Bressan-Smith, “Photosynthetic Pigments, Nitrogen, Chlorophyll a Fluorescence and SPAD-502 Readings in Coffee Leaves,” Scientia Horticulturae, vol. 104, no. 2, pp. 199–209, Mar. 2005. doi: 10.1016/j.scienta.2004.08.013. Abstract
     The chlorophyll meter (SPAD-502) is a simple, portable diagnostic tool that measures the greenness or relative content of leaves. Compared to the traditional destructive methods, the use of this equipment saves time, space and resources. The objective of this study was to establish a correlation between the photosynthetic pigments content extracted in DMSO, the total nitrogen content and the chlorophyll a fluorescence variables with the SPAD-502 readings in Coffea canephora Pierre leaves. The SPAD-502 has been shown to be a good tool to diagnose the integrity of the photosynthetic system in coffee leaves, and can thus help in the advanced interpretations of the photochemical process of these plants. The SPAD readings lower 40 show impairment in photosynthetic process. Thus, the portable chlorophyll SPAD-502 can be used to analyze the photosynthetic pigments, and total nitrogen can also help in interpretation of the photochemical process in coffee plants.
407. J. Y. Ng, M. Ans, and A. Marwaha, “Assessing the Quality of Information Provided on Websites Selling Kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa) to Consumers in Canada,” Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, vol. 16, no. 1, p. 23, Mar. 2021. doi: 10.1186/s13011-021-00361-2. Abstract
     Amid a Canadian opioid crisis, many have turned to natural health products, such as kratom (Mitragyna speciosa), to manage their opioid withdrawal. Kratom has also been reported to relieve anxiety, improve stamina, and heighten physical performance. Given that kratom is not authorized for sale by Health Canada, many have turned to online retailers to purchase kratom due to its easy accessibility online. This study investigated the quality of consumer health information provided on the websites of online vendors selling kratom to consumers in Canada.
408. C. Ngernsaengsaruay et al., “Additional Knowledge on the Genus Mitragyna (Rubiaceae) in Thailand,” Thai Forest Bulletin (Botany), vol. 50, pp. 20–39, 2022. doi: 10.20531/tfb.2022.50.1.03. Abstract
     A revision of the genus Mitragyna (Rubiaceae) in Thailand is reported. Four species, i.e. M. diversifolia, M. hirsuta, M. rotundifolia, and M. speciosa are described in this taxonomic treatment. A summary of taxonomic history, detailed morphological descriptions, distributions, ecology, phenology, vernacular names, uses, IUCN conservation status, specimens examined, photographs and a key to the species are proposed. Two names are lectotypified: M. rotundifolia and M. speciosa.
409. Q. T. Nguyen, T. Kozai, and U. Van Nguyen, “Effects of Sucrose Concentration, Supporting Material and Number of Air Exchanges of the Vessel on the Growth of in Vitro Coffee Plantlets,” Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, vol. 58, no. 1, pp. 51–57, Jul. 1999. doi: 10.1023/A:1006310328743. Abstract
     Growth of coffee (Coffea arabusta) plantlets cultured in vitroas affected by sugar, types of supporting material and number of air exchanges of the vessel was investigated. Single node cuttings of in vitro coffee plantlets were cultured on half strength MS medium with or without 20 g l−1 sucrose. Two types of supporting material, agar and Florialite, and two levels of air exchange expressed by number of air exchanges per vessel, 0.2 and 2.3 h−1, were studied. At the end of a 40-day culture period, fresh weight, shoot length, root length and leaf area of plantlets when cultured on Florialite soaked in sugar-free medium and under the higher number of air exchanges were greater than those in sugar containing medium. Callus was observed at the shoot base of plantlets grown on agar medium containing sucrose. Photosynthetic ability of coffee plantlets in vitro was also significantly increased when grown on sugar-free medium with the high number of air exchanges and Florialite as a supporting material.
410. Q. T. Nguyen, T. Kozai, and J. Heo, “Photoautotrophic Growth Response of in Vitro Cultured Coffee Plantlets to Ventilation Methods and Photosynthetic Photon Fluxes under Carbon Dioxide Enriched Condition,” Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, vol. 66, pp. 217–225, 2001. doi: 10.1023/A:1010662413486. Abstract
     Effects of two ventilation methods (forced and natural) and two photosynthetic photon fluxes (PPF, 150 and 250 µmol m−2 s−1) on the photoautotrophic growth of in vitro cultured coffee (Coffea arabusta) plantlets were investigated. Number of air exchanges was 2.7, 5.9 and 3.9 h−1 for forced low rate, forced high rate and natural ventilation, respectively. Single node cuttings of in vitro cultured coffee plantlets were cultured on Florialite, a mixture of vermiculite and cellulose fibers with high air porosity, emerged in liquid half strength basal MS medium, without sucrose, vitamins and plant growth regulators. The study included 40 days in the in vitro stage and 10 days in the ex vitro stage. Mean fresh and dry weights, leaf area, shoot and root lengths and net photosynthetic rate per plantlet were significantly greater in forced high rate treatments compared with those in natural and forced low rate treatments. PPF had a distinct effect on shoot length suppression and root elongation of coffee plantlets in forced high rate treatments. The control of carbon dioxide concentration inside the culture box according to the plant demand when growing was easy with the forced ventilation method in photoautotrophic micropropagation.
411. H. Nguyen Thi, “Germinación de embriones somáticos de Coffea arabica L. cv. Caturra rojo en Sistemas de Inmersión Temporal tipo RITA® y su conversión en casa de cultivo,” PhD thesis, Universidad Central "Marta Abreu" De Las Villas, 2014. https://dspace.uclv.edu.cu/handle/123456789/700. Abstract
     The cultivation of coffee constitutes an important area to increase the income of the national economy from the export of the grain. The development of somatic embryogenesis of coffee in liquid culture media is a viable alternative for the propagation of this species. The use of culture media in liquid state combined with culture systems based on the temporary immersion of the explants, could increase germination and improve the quality of the plants for their conversion under ex vitro conditions. To this end, the objective of determining the effect of inoculation density on the germination of somatic embryos of Coffea arabica L. cv. Red Caturra in Temporary Immersion Systems type RITA®, in addition to evaluating the effect of the composition and type of substrate on the growth and development of plants in the acclimatization phase. Different inoculum densities were used (40, 50, 60, 70 and 80 somatic embryos by RITA®). At 90 days of culture, morphological variables were evaluated such as: the number of somatic embryos with partial and total germination, symptoms of hyperhydricity, number of true leaves, length and root development. While, in the acclimatization phase, different substrate compositions were used (85% earthworm humus-15% Zeolite, 75% earthworm humus-25% Zeolite, 65% earthworm humus-35% Zeolite, 50% earthworm humus -50% Zeolite) and it was evaluated: the height of the plants, the number of leaves, the length of the main root, the fresh mass, the dry mass, the foliar area. The best result in Temporary Immersion Systems type RITA® was achieved with an inoculum density of 70 ES per RITA® with 60% germination and with a good development of plant length and number of leaves compared to the others. treatments. Good development and survival of the plants from somatic embryogenesis was achieved in the different composition and type of substrate treatments. However, the best result in terms of the morphological development of the plants was obtained with the substrates composed of 75% Worm Humus-25% Zeolite and 85% Worm Humus-15% Zeolite, with a survival of 100 and 96.4% respectively. .
412. G. I. Nic-Can et al., “New Insights into Somatic Embryogenesis: LEAFY COTYLEDON1, BABY BOOM1 and WUSCHEL-RELATED HOMEOBOX4 Are Epigenetically Regulated in Coffea Canephora,” PLoS One, vol. 8, no. 8, p. e72160, 2013. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0072160. Abstract
     Plant cells have the capacity to generate a new plant without egg fertilization by a process known as somatic embryogenesis (SE), in which differentiated somatic cells can form somatic embryos able to generate a functional plant. Although there have been advances in understanding the genetic basis of SE, the epigenetic mechanism that regulates this process is still unknown. Here, we show that the embryogenic development of Coffea canephora proceeds through a crosstalk between DNA methylation and histone modifications during the earliest embryogenic stages of SE. We found that low levels of DNA methylation, histone H3 lysine 9 dimethylation (H3K9me2) and H3K27me3 change according to embryo development. Moreover, the expression of LEAFY COTYLEDON1 (LEC1) and BABY BOOM1 (BBM1) are only observed after SE induction, whereas WUSCHEL-RELATED HOMEOBOX4 (WOX4) decreases its expression during embryo maturation. Using a pharmacological approach, it was found that 5-Azacytidine strongly inhibits the embryogenic response by decreasing both DNA methylation and gene expression of LEC1 and BBM1. Therefore, in order to know whether these genes were epigenetically regulated, we used Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays. It was found that WOX4 is regulated by the repressive mark H3K9me2, while LEC1 and BBM1 are epigenetically regulated by H3K27me3. We conclude that epigenetic regulation plays an important role during somatic embryogenic development, and a molecular mechanism for SE is proposed.
413. “Can I Bring Green or Roasted Coffee Beans into the United States from Another Country?,” AskUSDA. Jul-2019. https://ask.usda.gov/s/article/Can-I-bring-green-or-roasted-coffee-beans-into-the-United-States-from-another-country. Abstract
     The United States Department of Agriculture’s (USDA’s) requirements for the entry of coffee/coffee beans differ according to the specific form of the product and location of entry.
414. “Claude Rifat,” Wikipedia, Sep. 2020. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Claude_Rifat&oldid=979243415. Abstract
     Claude Rifat (1 March 1952, Cairo - July 31, 2002) was a French biologist, psychonaut, political activist, writer, and researcher. His accomplishments include some early research into GHB, including the thymoanaleptic/antidepressant and sociabilising effects of this molecule. He is credited with providing the first live plant material and seeds of Mitragyna speciosa outside Thailand, including several bioassays. This material is the source of the vast majority of Kratom plants currently available outside Thailand. He has been one of the best bamboos specialist in the last years. He has introduced more than 100 different species, forms and varieties of bamboos from different countries in the world. He has written a book about the contrasts between English and French people in Quebec.
415. “Coffea Arabica L.” . https://www.gbif.org/species/2895345. Abstract
     Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Free and Open Access to Biodiversity Data.
416. “Difference between Yage and Ayahuasca ? - Page 3 - Ayahuasca Forums.” . http://forums.ayahuasca.com/viewtopic.php?f=12&t=26148&start=30.
417. “EBSCOhost | 155573927 | Cytotoxic and Antimicrobial Activities of Phytoconstituents of the Stem Bark Extract of Psychotria Djumaensis.” . https://web.p.ebscohost.com/abstract?direct=true&profile=ehost&scope=site&authtype=crawler&jrnl=18160573&AN=155573927&h=Mm45jDMk%2fH2Fl2RgNrpf%2bd%2f9GGMtndJOh%2fzblV2nTRL9jeRHg8eDHTrDe2%2bjws%2budFVrpqCYP8WtyiWRkOJrTQ%3d%3d&crl=c&resultNs=AdminWebAuth&resultLocal=ErrCrlNotAuth&crlhashurl=login.aspx%3fdirect%3dtrue%26profile%3dehost%26scope%3dsite%26authtype%3dcrawler%26jrnl%3d18160573%26AN%3d155573927.
418. “EBSCOhost | 65546725 | Progress in Chemical Constituents and Bioactivities of Psychotria.” . https://web.p.ebscohost.com/abstract?direct=true&profile=ehost&scope=site&authtype=crawler&jrnl=10016880&AN=65546725&h=fBwrDvnpEHFg%2bH%2boJg5BWDqhFDGkxhmTS4gN4InCmGP2S4hBToVGNv0M9TcC6PigF26YSvYrxsTS0mBXjr%2fEbA%3d%3d&crl=c&resultNs=AdminWebAuth&resultLocal=ErrCrlNotAuth&crlhashurl=login.aspx%3fdirect%3dtrue%26profile%3dehost%26scope%3dsite%26authtype%3dcrawler%26jrnl%3d10016880%26AN%3d65546725.
419. “Help with Unknown Psychotria- Is This Psychotria Colorata?” . https://sharetheseeds.me/forum/index.php?topic=5798.msg43626#msg43626.
420. “Induction of in Vitro Shoot Culture of Mitragyna Speciosa for Mitragynine Biosynthetic Study.” https://kb.psu.ac.th/psukb/bitstream/2016/10956/1/377824-abstract.pdf.
421. “Kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa Korth) for a New Medicinal: A Review of Pharmacological and Compound Analysis,” Biointerface Research in Applied Chemistry, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 9704–9718, Sep. 2020. doi: 10.33263/BRIAC112.97049718. Abstract
     Mitragyna speciosa Korth. (Rubiaceae) a tree found in Southeast Asia (Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, and Papua New Guinea. Traditionally, the Mitragyna speciosa was used to alleviate pain, hypertension, cough, diarrhea, and as a substitute for morphine in treating addicts. Association of Southeast Asian Nations refers to kratom as a drug. Kratom contains more than 40 types of alkaloids, including Mitragynine speciosa, as many as (66.2%) and their derivatives, speciogynine (6.6%), speciociliatine (0.8%), paynantheine (8.6%), 7-hydroxymitragynine (2%). The article was created to provide information related to the pharmacological effects of kratom, kratom compound analysis, and the potential of compounds from kratom to become new drugs. The method used in this research is to review and analyze kratom articles from research papers, bibliographic reviews, and case reports included, research conducted in Indonesia and in English. The main purpose of this review is not only to understand the chemical content, benefits of kratom, and analytical methodologies for analysis, but also the use of kratom secondary metabolites as therapeutic drugs and the side effects caused by kratom, to help health professionals assess the content of compounds from kratom worthy of being new drugs.
422. “Kratom, Mitragynine, 7-Hydroxymitragynine Pre-Review Report.” . https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/kratom-mitragynine-7-hydroxymitragynine-critical-review-report. Abstract
     Kratom, mitragynine, 7-hydroxymitragynine pre-review report - unedited version
423. “Mitragyna Speciosa Kratom Cultivation,” Kratom.net. . https://kratom.net/forum/articles/mitragyna-speciosa-kratom-cultivation.4/. Abstract
     Recently Mitragyna speciosa Kratom has been successfully cultivated outside of its traditional / indigenous growing area, from seeds then, more frequently, from cuttings. Growing Mitragyna speciosa Kratom from seed is very difficult, and it is...
424. “Pinkley.” . https://www.samorini.it/doc1/alt_aut/lr/pinkley.html.
425. “Plant Medicine Retreat — The Jungle Journal,” Imagery Beyond Borders. Sep-2021. https://imagerybeyondborders.org/the-jungle-journal/tag/plant+medicine+retreat. Abstract
     The Jungle Journal
426. “Prevalence and Description of Kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa) Use in the United States: A Cross‐sectional Study.” doi: 10.1111/add.15082.
427. “Psychotria - An Overview - ProQuest.” . https://www.proquest.com/openview/2cc3834c0a75160b8dc0b497a137142d/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1096441. Abstract
     Explore millions of resources from scholarly journals, books, newspapers, videos and more, on the ProQuest Platform.
428. “Psychotria Viridis Identification,” The Corroboree. . https://www.shaman-australis.com/forum/index.php?/topic/28364-psychotria-viridis-identification/. Abstract
     i thought a thread on this could be usefull.i hope to expand this thread with more details, in given time.first all three different viridis in one shot, all the plants are of similar age, but the moon aka la luna was a bit bigger when i recieved those beauties from tort.
429. “Specimen Details - The William & Lynda Steere Herbarium.” . https://sweetgum.nybg.org/science/vh/specimen-details/?irn=1268556.
430. “USDA APHIS | International Traveler: Coffee, Teas, Honey, Nuts, and Spices,” Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. Jun-2020. https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/resources/traveler/intl-travel/coffee-tea-honey-nuts-spices/coffee-tea-honey-nuts-spices.
431. “World Seed Supply’s Guide to Psychotria Viridis & Alba Identification « Worldseedsupply.Org.” Nov-2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20131103185840/http://worldseedsupply.org/blog/?p=228.
432. “World Seed Supply’s Guide to Psychotria Viridis & Alba Identification - Botanicals,” Mycotopia. . https://mycotopia.net/topic/80418-world-seed-supply%E2%80%99s-guide-to-psychotria-viridis-alba-identification/?hl=colorata. Abstract
     Growing Magic Mushrooms, Mushroom spores, Ayahuasca, Magic Mushroom, Cultivation, Magic Mushroom Cultivation, Psilocybe Mushrooms, Cactis and Cannabis, including research, legislation, media coverage, bibliography and lots of links
433. S. M. Nst, “Respons Perkecambahan Benih Kopi Arabika (Coffea arabica L.) pada Berbagai Lama Perendaman Giberelin dan Sitokinin,” PhD thesis, Universitas Sumatera Utara, Medan, 2020. https://repositori.usu.ac.id/handle/123456789/29676. Abstract
     The problem that often faced in generative propagation is the slow germination of coffee seeds, which is thought to be caused by caffeine content. Efforts increase the germination coffee beans are the presence gibberellin and cytokinin soaking treatment prior to planting on seeds that have been shelled. This research was conducted at the screen house the Faculty of Agriculture, Universitas Sumatera Utara, Medan from October 2019 to January 2020 using a factorial randomized block design (RBD) with two treatment factors: factor one, giving growth regulators consisting without the provision of growth regulators, 20 ppm gibberellins, 100 ppm cytokinins and 20 ppm gibberellins + 100 ppm cytokinins and a factor two, Soaking duration consisting of soaking for 6 hours, 12 hours, 18 hours. The results showed that giving 20 ppm gibberellin significantly accelerated the opening cotyledons, when the cotyledons were broken, the germination rate and the vigor index the germination of arabica coffee. Soaking duration treatment had no significant effect on all parameters of seed germination. The interaction growth regulators and soaking duration did not significantly affect all parameters
434. M. A. Nunes, J. F. Bierhuizen, and C. Ploegman, “Studies on Productivity of Coffee: I. Effect of Light, Temperature and Co2 Concentration on Photosynthesis of Coffea Arabica,” Acta Botanica Neerlandica, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 93–102, 1968. doi: 10.1111/j.1438-8677.1968.tb00109.x. Abstract
     A study was made on the effect of light and temperature on net photosynthesis, growth and transpiration of Coffea arabica. Net photosynthesis was described as a diffusive process depending on a carbon dioxide gradient and an overall resistance. At a relative low temperature (24 °C), the effect of light on net photosynthesis was comparable with that of most annual agricultural crops. Calculated internal concentration and overall resistance at 0.3 cal cm–2 min–1 were zero p.p.m. and 15 sec cm–1 respectively. Above this temperature each degree rise resulted in an increase of 20 p.p.m. in internal CO2 concentration. This effect alone accounts already for a decrease in dry matter production of approximately 7% per degree centigrade. The increase in internal CO2 was accompanied with an increase of the overall resistance, reducing still more the dry matter production. Low rates of photosynthesis in coffee reported in literature could be explained. Increasing the external CO2 content and thus the CO2 gradient had only a minor effect on photosynthesis. The effect of temperature and light on growth confirmed the conclusions of net photosynthesis research. Since both factors increase transpiration substantially, the water use efficiency decreases strongly with an increase in light and in temperature above 24 °C. The results may have importance for selecting optimum growth conditions for coffee.
435. F. J. NUTMAN, “Studies of the Physiology of Coffea Arabica: I. Photosynthesis of Coffee Leaves under Natural Conditions,” Annals of Botany, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 353–367, 1937. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42906557. Abstract
     In certain of the coffee-growing areas of East Africa a serious trouble known as ’overbearing and die-back’ occurs. This has been described (Nutman, 1933) and evidence opresented for the view that the heavy demands for carbohydrate by the developing crop exhaust the reserves, and exceed the normal daily carbon income of the tree. The branches then die back; the greater part of the feeding roots is lost and not regenerated ; and the tree is permanently injured. Although it may not die for several years it remains unproductive. Since shortage of carbohydrate is associated with this form of die-back it is apparent that, if the rate of cropping is not to be reduced, means of control must be sought in an increase of the normal carbon income of the tree. Thus a knowledge of the rates of carbon assimilation of trees growing under plantation conditions is of importance. This paper deals with the results of an investigation into the rates of carbon assimilation under field conditions by leaves of Coffea arabica growing in the coffee districts of the Northern
436. S. Obeng et al., “Investigation of the Adrenergic and Opioid Binding Affinities, Metabolic Stability, Plasma Protein Binding Properties, and Functional Effects of Selected Indole-Based Kratom Alkaloids,” Journal of medicinal chemistry, vol. 63, no. 1, pp. 433–439, Jan. 2020. doi: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.9b01465. Abstract
     Selected indole-based kratom alkaloids were evaluated for their opioid and adrenergic receptor binding and functional effects, in vivo antinociceptive effects, plasma protein binding, and metabolic stability. Mitragynine, the major alkaloid in Mitragyna speciosa (kratom), had higher affinity at opioid receptors than at adrenergic receptors while the vice versa was observed for corynantheidine. The observed polypharmacology of kratom alkaloids may support its utilization to treat opioid use disorder and withdrawal.,
437. J. Ogata, M. Kawamura, T. Hakamatsuka, and R. Kikura-Hanajiri, “[Discrimination of Kratom Products by an Improved PCR-RFLP Method],” Yakugaku zasshi, vol. 140, no. 12, pp. 1501–1508, Jan. 2020. doi: 10.1248/yakushi.20-00170. Abstract
     In Japan, mitragynine, 7-hydroxymitragynine and Mitragyna speciosa Korth. (M. speciosa, "Kratom") were controlled as Designated Substances under the Pharmaceutical and Medical Device Act from March 2016. In this study, the origins of 16 Kratom products obtained from the illegal drug market in Japan were investigated by DNA analyses and LC-MS analyses. When the PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) was performed using the restriction enzyme XmaI (as reported by Sukrong et al. to be able to distinguish M. speciosa), the same DNA fragment patterns were obtained from all 16 products. On the other hand, as a result of the identification of the plant species of each product by nucleotide sequence analyses, the sequences of M. speciosa were detected in only 14 products. Despite the facts that mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine were detected also in the other two products by the LC-MS analyses, M. speciosa DNAs were not amplified from these products by the PCR. Moreover, the DNA amplicons of the other psychotropic plant (Mesembryanthemum sp., e.g. "Kanna") were detected. This plant PCR amplicon has the restriction site for the XmaI at the same position of the M. speciosa PCR amplicon and it is difficult to distinguish "Kratom" and "Kanna" by the conventional PCR-RFLP. When the restriction enzyme XhoI was used simultaneously with the Xmal, the specific DNA fragment was only observed from the M. speciosa amplicon and it was possible to distinguish both species using this improved PCR-RFLP method. This method is useful to identify the origin of Kratom products distributed in the illegal drug market.
438. G. H. H. Oliveira, P. C. Corrêa, F. M. Botelho, S. C. Campos, and A. A. Paixão, “Dimension Characteristics Evaluation of Coffee Berries During Drying,” in XVII Th World Congress of the International Commission of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering, Québec City, Canada, 2010, p. 8. Abstract
     Surface and volume measurements are important parameters that affect storage and shipping space, spray and gas applications, respiration rates, water loss or absorption data and heat and mass transfer coefficients. Also, drying models usually neglect the volume and surface alterations of agricultural products during the dehydration process, which leads to machinery and handling inefficiency. That being stated, the objective of the present work was to study the dimension alterations of Coffea Arabic L., cultivar Catuaí Vermelho. Coffee berries were dried at temperatures (T) of 35, 45, 55 and 65 ºC, along with relative humidities φ( ) of 25, 35, 45 and 55 %, totalizing 16 different conditions, with initial moisture content of 2.27 dry basis (d.b.), dried until approximately 0.11 d.b. An equation was proposed to describe the relationship among superficial area with weight values of coffee berries. Changes in the product dimensions were measured continuously during drying utilizing a digital caliper. Surface area-to-volume ratio values increased with moisture content decrease. According to statistical parameters, the empirical equation was suitable to predict surface area of coffee berries. With this result, engineers can predict the surface area of coffee through its weight, providing information that can be used to develop adequate machinery to use in harvest and postharvest procedures.
439. L. A. Oliveira et al., “Histochemical Approach of the Mobilization of Reserve Compounds in Germinating Coffee Seeds,” Coffee Science - ISSN 1984-3909, vol. 15, pp. e151704–e151704, Aug. 2020. doi: 10.25186/.v15i.1704. Abstract
     The endosperm of coffee beans is an important structure which is composed of different reserve compounds. In the present work, we followed anatomical features during the reserve mobilization of Coffea arabica L. ‘Catuaí’ seed samples, harvested at 20 different sites, after 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, 33 and 45 days of imbibition. Seed samples were properly fixed and stored, respectively, for histochemical and enzyme activity approach. Fixed samples were cross-sectioned for detection of starch, lipids, essential oils, oleoresins, proteins, phenolic compounds, neutral polysaccharides, alkaloids, β-1,3 and β-1,4 glucans, and lignin. Overall, based on histochemical tests and enzyme activity, seed reserve mobilization was similar among the evaluated altitudes and mountainsides. During soaking, there is an intense consumption of reserve compounds, starting at the region close to the embryo. Reserve mobilization intensifies after root protrusion, from 12 days of soaking. The intensification of the reserve consumption is concomitant with an increased activity of MDH is observed at the first 12 days, whereas SOD showed higher expression after 33 days of soaking. At the 33rd day, little reserve is observed in the endosperm. At 45th day, cotyledon leaves are expanded, and the root system, constituted by the taproot and lateral roots, is well established. Key words: Coffea arabica; germination; reserve breakdown; histochemistry; seed anatomy.
440. C. F. de Oliveira et al., “Phytochemical and Morpho-Anatomical Study of the Vegetative Organs of Psychotria Fractistipula L.B.Sm., R.M. Klein & Delprete (Rubiaceae),” Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, vol. 56, p. e18158, Sep. 2020. doi: 10.1590/s2175-97902020000118158. Abstract
     Psychotria fractistipula L.B.Sm, R.M. Klein & Delprete (Rubiaceae) is found in the existing Atlantic Forest in the South of Brazil, in the Paraná and Santa Catarina States. The members of Rubiaceae are characterized chemically by the presence of alkaloids, some pharmacological properties of which include antifungal, antibacterial, analgesic, antioxidant, antimutagenic, and antiviral activities. In this study, we report the results of anatomical, morphological, and histochemical analyses of the leaves and stems of the Rubiaceae family member, P. fractistipula. The anatomical analysis involved of light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Morpho-anatomical and histochemical characterization were made using standard methodology. The isolated compounds were identified by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopic analysis. The following structures are highlighted as the distinctive features of the species: presence of petiolate leaves and a petiole base, leaf blade with smooth cuticle on both surfaces, paracytic stomata, and, dorsiventral mesophyll and presence of trichomes on the leaves and stems. Phytosteroids, identified as β-sitosterol and campesterol, were observed in the hexane fraction of the stem. Future studies should focus on the isolation of other fractions of interest and their characterization through specific biological and cytotoxicity assays.
441. J. Ortega-Ortega, F. A. Ramírez-Ortega, R. Ruiz-Medrano, and B. Xoconostle-Cázares, “Analysis of Genome Size of Sixteen Coffea Arabica Cultivars Using Flow Cytometry,” HortScience, vol. 54, no. 6, pp. 998–1004, 2019. doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI13916-19. Abstract
     Coffee is an important crop worldwide, grown on about 10 million hectares in tropical regions including Latin America, Africa, and Asia. The genus Coffea includes more than 100 species; most are diploid, except for C. arabica, which is allotetraploid and autogamous. The genetic diversity of commercial coffee is low, likely due to it being self-pollinating, in addition, the widespread propagation of few selected cultivars, such as Caturra, Bourbon, and Typica. One approach is the analysis of genome size in these cultivars as a proxy to study its genetic variability. In the present work, genome size of 16 cultivars was assessed through high-resolution flow cytometry (FCM). Nuclear DNA was analyzed using a modified procedure that uses propidium iodide (PI) and 4′,6′-diamino-2-phenylindole dihydrochloride hydrate (DAPI) staining. The C. arabica cultivars investigated possessed a nuclear DNA content ranging from 2.56 ± 0.016 pg for Typica, to 3.16 ± 0.033 pg for ICATU, which had the largest genome size. All cultivars measured using both fluorochromes had greater estimates with DAPI than PI. The proportion of the genome composed of guanosine and cytosine (GC%) among the cultivars evaluated in this study ranged from 37.03% to 39.22%. There are few studies of genome size by FCM of distinct important C. arabica cultivars, e.g., hybrids and artificial crosses. Thus, this work could be valuable for coffee breeding programs. The data presented here are intended to expand the genomic understanding of C. arabica and could link nuclear DNA content with evolutionary relationships such as diversification, hybridization and polyploidy.
442. V. Ortiz-Timoteo, V. M. Ordaz-Chaparro, A. Aldrete, E. Escamilla-Prado, G. Sánchez-Viveros, and R. M. López-Romero, “Pregerminative treatments in seeds of two species of the Coffea genus.,” Agroproductividad, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 68–73, 2018. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/249320115.pdf. Abstract
     Coffee seeds have slow and asynchronic germination, which increases the time needed to obtain seedlings, and the expenses associated. A pregerminative treatment (PT) was defined which decreases the germination time in seeds of Coffea arabica L. var. Colombia and Coffea canephora P. var. Robusta. Five pregerminative treatments in water were applied to seeds without endocarp: T1) immersion for 24 hours; T2) scraping plus immersion for 24 hours; T3) immersion for one hour at 40 °C; T4) immersion for 48 hours; and T5) scraping plus immersion for 48 hours. Subsequently, they were sown in two substrates (sand and peat-moss). The treatments had three replicates with 25 seeds as experimental unit, organized into a completely randomized design with factorial arrangement. The variables evaluated were: days to start of germination (DIG), speed of emergence (VE), and percentage of emergence (PE). In Coffea arabica, the PT that decreased the germination period was T1, obtaining seedlings at 22 days, with greater vigor with a VE of 0.55 emerged seedlings per day, and increased PE to 59, 92, and 97% on days 30, 40, and 50, respectively. In Coffea canephora, T1 presented 0.40 VE and PE of 42% at 30 days and 73% at 50 days, while T2 increased PE at 40 and 50 days by 70 and 81%, respectively. The best substrate was sand, which decreased the germination period of Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora to 26 and 23 days, increased VE to 0.53 and 0.35 emerged seedlings per day, respectively, and had PE of more than 70% after 50 days in both species.
443. F. Ortuno V and R. Echandi Z, “Effect of Storage Conditions on Viability and Vigour of Coffee Seeds (Coffea Arabica).,” Agronomia Costarricense, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 149–154, 1980.
444. T. Owen, “What Is Wet-Processed Coffee? - Sweet Maria’s Coffee Library,” Sweet Maria’s Coffee Library. Nov-2014. https://library.sweetmarias.com/what-is-wet-processed-coffee/. Abstract
     You might know it for its clean, bright taste, but wet-processing is a means to get the seed separated from the fruit, get it dried, and prepare it for roasting. Wet-processed coffee means the skin (and pulp) is peeled from the fruit before it is dried.
445. T. Owen, “What Is Dry Processed Coffee? - Sweet Maria’s Coffee Library,” Sweet Maria’s Coffee Library. Mar-2020. https://library.sweetmarias.com/what-is-dry-processed-coffee/. Abstract
     It takes incredible intention and care to create a premium dry processed coffee.
446. A. G. Pacheco Bustos, “Allelochemical Effects of Aromatic Species Intercropped with Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) in Puebla, Mexico,” PhD thesis, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, 2007. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11811/2714. Abstract
     Over 30 million coffee growers all over the world face starvation due to low international coffee prices. The impact is very acute in Latin America, which accounts nearly 65% of world coffee production. The current crisis seems to be shaped by changes in consumer preferences as well as low production phenomenon due to caffeine accumulation in coffee plantation soils as a result of decades of monoculture. To turn the present crisis around, a successful strategy for agricultural diversification is required. In response to the crisis, some coffee growers have begun to diversify their coffee plantations with intercalated cultivations of aromatic plants. Herbs are profitable crops and adaptable to the environmental conditions of coffee regions. Due to the complexity of the natural interaction under intercropped systems and the potential allelopathic effects between coffee and aromatic herbs, some questions need to be clarified before this alternative production system can be recommended to growers. Accumulation of caffeine in a soluble form in the soil is regarded as one reason for “low production” and degeneration by auto toxicity of coffee plantations. The use of aromatic species with the ability to take-up and accumulate caffeine may be a way to diminish the toxic levels of this alkaloid and increase coffee production. In this present study, the potential uptake of caffeine by spearmint (Mentha piperita L.), basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), sage (Salvia officinalis L.), and oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) and the allelopathic effects of these herbs on physiological parameters in coffee (Coffea arabica L.) were investigated. Two ecological conditions in rural area of Puebla State, Mexico (2004-2005), as well as laboratory bioassays in Bonn, Germany (2006) were evaluated, to validate the hypothesis that intercropping herbs in coffee production systems is a possibility to attenuate the coffee crisis while positively stimulating coffee plant growth and cup quality, diminishing caffeine content in the soil. To summarize the results: 1. Intercropping sage, spearmint, basil and oregano stimulate the plagiotropic growth of Coffea arabica plants most effectively in young production systems by still unknown mechanisms. 2. Volatiles from essential oils induce stomata opening in coffee leaves, which may have a positive influence on the CO2 fixation and increase of photosynthetic activity when no limiting factors are present. 3. Aromatic species, principally sage and oregano absorb caffeine and can contribute to a diminishing of the caffeine contamination of the soil. 4. Cup quality is improved with spearmint, basil and sage as intercrops, but mechanisms of action are unknown and further research remains to be done. 5. Finally coffee growers can stabilize their income situation and their social condition by offering aromatic plants to the local markets produced during the no-harvest period of coffee (April –November) in between coffee rows.
447. F. Palhano-Fontes, B. L. Soares, N. L. Galvão-Coelho, E. Arcoverde, and D. B. Araujo, “Ayahuasca for the Treatment of Depression,” in Disruptive Psychopharmacology, F. S. Barrett and K. H. Preller, Eds. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2022, pp. 113–124. doi: 10.1007/7854_2021_277. Abstract
     Ayahuasca, the vine of the souls in Quechua, is a psychedelic brew with a few formulations that most often include the bark of a liana in the Malpighiaceae family (Banisteriopsis caapi), with leaves from a shrub in the coffee family Rubiaceae (Psychotria viridis). Mixed with water and boiled for hours or days, it produces a brownish-colored liquid with a strong and characteristic taste. Ayahuasca contains the psychedelic tryptamine N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), and Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOi), and in the past few years, it has been tested. In recent years its antidepressant properties have been put to the test. Evidence from open and randomized placebo-controlled clinical trials has shown encouraging results, indicating significant and rapid antidepressant effects, starting as early as 1 day after the ayahuasca intervention. In addition, we have explored the nature of these effects using multivariate measures. In this article, we will review the history, pharmacology, clinical trials, and clinical and behavioral markers associated with the antidepressant effects of ayahuasca.
448. A. Pallavicini, L. del Terra, B. de Nardi, P. Rovelli, and G. Graziosi, “A Catalogue of Genes Expressed in Coffea Arabica L.,” in 19ème Colloque Scientifique International Sur Le Café, Trieste, Italy, 14-18 Mai 2001, 2001, pp. 1–7. https://www.asic-cafe.org/conference/19th-international-scientific-colloquium-coffee/catalogue-genes-expressed-coffea-arabica.
449. A. Pallavicini, J. Devasia, M. Modonut, P. Edomi, and L. Navarini, “Gene Expression Analysis of Coffea Arabica Seeds Processed under Different Post-Harvest Processing Methods,” Journal of Plantation Crops, vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 1–15, 2019. doi: 10.25081/jpc.2019.v47.i1.5528. Abstract
     The mode of coffee processing, either the wet or dry method, determines the characteristic flavour and establishes the differences in quality of the final green coffee produced. The present study focused mainly on identifying the differential gene expression in green coffee seeds of Brazilian arabica coffee (Coffea arabica L.) among samples prepared under three different post-harvest treatments (natural, washed and semi washed method) and grown in two different locations. Expression levels of 16 genes of interest were measured. These genes are involved in various cellular, metabolic and biochemical activities influencing levels of certain compounds, such as lipids, carbohydrates, caffeine and chlorogenic acid, associated with quality characteristics of the beverage. Microarray experiments were designed with cDNA probe sequences. Microarray data was analyzed to identify the differences in gene expression between two altitudes and between two variables: location and post-harvest treatment. Cluster analysis was carried out with samples showing similar patterns, which are characteristic to the group. With this approach, it was possible to identify the important genes in C. arabica seeds that have differential (increased or decreased) expression levels. It was also seen that between the location and treatments, location profoundly impacts the levels of gene expression in samples.
450. E. G. Palú, A. B. Da Silva, and M. Pasqual, “Indução De Brotações in Vitro Em Segmentos Nodais De Coffea Arabica L.,” Ensaios e Ciência: Ciências Biológicas, Agrárias e da Saúde, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 361–369, 2005. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237031115_INDUCAO_DE_BROTACOES_IN_VITRO_EM_SEGMENTOS_NODAIS_DE_Coffea_arabica_L. Abstract
     Coffee is one of the most important products on the international market, and through conventional methods, the techniques for improving this species require a relatively long time. This and the resources spent are the limiting factors for obtaining cultivars in a relatively short period. Given this fact, in vitro vegetative multiplication appears as a viable and short-term alternative for solving these problems. The present work aimed to study the shoot induction in nodal segments, observing the influence of the apical bud, the number of buds and inoculation position of the explant of Coffea arabica L. (Catura, Catuaí and Icatu). The explants were from pre-established in vitro plants. For that, we used the culture medium “MS” (MURASHIGE; SKOOG, 1962) supplemented with 3 mg.L -1 of GA 3 + 6 mg.L -1 of BAP. The experiments were incubated in growth rooms at a temperature of 25 ± 1 o C and a photoperiod of 16 hours, under 35 μmol.m -2 .s -1 photosynthetic photon flux. It was concluded that the use of explants without the apical bud, with three pairs of lateral buds and inoculated in the vertical position, favored the shoots in the nodal segments in the tested Coffea arabica L. cultivars.
451. R. G. P. Panjaitan and L. Liridah, “Liver Organ Impairment Due to the Consumption of Kratom Leaves (Mitragyna Speciosa Korth.),” 2021. doi: 10.5530/PJ.2021.13.25. Abstract
     Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth) is one of the plant types widely growing in African and Southeast Asia, as well as in the territory of the Pacific Islands. Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth) is one of the plant types widely growing in African and Southeast Asia1,2, as well as in the territory of the Pacific Islands.1 In Southeast Asia, kratom is mainly found in the territory lands of Thailand and Malaysia3,4, including Indonesia.4 This plant has its unique names in each area, for instance, kratom in the region of Thailand, biak-biak in the region of Malaysia5, while purik in the territory of Indonesia, especially in Kabupaten Kapuas Hulu called by the local people. Kratom is a type of woody plant with a height of up to 15-20 meters.
452. F. Pantano et al., “Hepatotoxicity Induced by ‘the 3Ks’: Kava, Kratom and Khat,” International Journal of Molecular Sciences, vol. 17, no. 4, p. 580, Apr. 2016. doi: 10.3390/ijms17040580. Abstract
     The 3Ks (kava, kratom and khat) are herbals that can potentially induce liver injuries. On the one hand, growing controversial data have been reported about the hepatotoxicity of kratom, while, on the other hand, even though kava and khat hepatotoxicity has been investigated, the hepatotoxic effects are still not clear. Chronic recreational use of kratom has been associated with rare instances of acute liver injury. Several studies and case reports have suggested that khat is hepatotoxic, leading to deranged liver enzymes and also histopathological evidence of acute hepatocellular degeneration. Numerous reports of severe hepatotoxicity potentially induced by kava have also been highlighted, both in the USA and Europe. The aim of this review is to focus on the different patterns and the mechanisms of hepatotoxicity induced by “the 3Ks”, while trying to clarify the numerous aspects that still need to be addressed.
453. F. L. Partelli et al., “Low Temperature Impact on Photosynthetic Parameters of Coffee Genotypes,” Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira, vol. 44, no. 11, pp. 1404–1415, Nov. 2009. doi: 10.1590/S0100-204X2009001100006. Abstract
     The objective of this work was to evaluate photoprotective mechanisms related to low positive temperatures in Coffea canephora (Conilon clones 02 and 153) and C. arabica (’Catucaí’ IPR 102) genotypes, involved in cold temperature tolerance. To accomplish this, one‑year‑old plants were successively submitted to: temperature decrease of 0.5ºC day‑1, from 25/20ºC to 13/8ºC; a three‑day chilling cycle at 13/4ºC; and a recovery period of 14 days (25/20ºC). During the experiment, leaf gas exchange, chlorophyll a fluorescence and leaf photosynthetic pigment content were evaluated. Total activity of ribulose‑1,5‑bisphosphate carboxylase/ oxygenase (Rubisco) and ribulose‑5‑phosphate kinase (Ru5PK) were quantified to measure the activity of photosynthesis key enzymes. All genotypes showed low temperature sensitivity, but displayed diverse cold impact and recovery capabilities regarding the photosynthetic‑related parameters studied. Catucaí IPR 102 cultivar showed better ability to cope with cold stress than the Conilon clones, especially Conilon 02, and had full recovery of leaf gas exchange, fluorescence parameters, enzymatic activity, and higher contents of the photoprotective pigments zeaxanthin and lutein.
454. F. L. Partelli, H. D. Vieira, and M. A. Martins, “Nutritional Diagnosis of the Organic Conilon Coffee Trees (Coffea Canephora Pierre Ex Froehn): Suffiency Range Approach for Leaves and Soil,” Apr. 2006. http://www.sbicafe.ufv.br/handle/123456789/3905. Abstract
     The objective of this study was to establish the Sufficiency Range Approach of both the Foliar (SRAF) and the soil nutrient contents (SRAS) of Conilon coffee trees (Coffea canephora Pierre ex Froehn), cultivated organically in Espírito Santo - Brazil. The nutritional diagnosis using Diagnosis Recommendation Integrated System (DRIS) 1and SRAF, was also compared. The nutrient contents of the leaves and soil were evaluated in 56 organic crops. To establish SRAF and SRAS, the foliar and the soil nutrient contents was used respectively, from 22 crops with high yield (equal or above 2,400 kg ha-1 coffee fruit processing). The comparison between DRIS and SRAF was performed through the ordination of the limiting nutrients and qui-square test. Results revealed that SRAF was of: N (g kg-1) 26.2-29.0, P (g kg-1) 1.51-1.75, K (g kg-1) 14.7-18.7, Ca (g kg-1) 12.4-14.6, Mg (g kg-1) 2.92-4.19- 6, S (g kg-1) 1.85-2.33, B (mg kg-1) 45.5-63.5, Cu (mg kg-1) 11.1-21.1, Fe (mg kg-1) 69.2-155.0, Mn (mg kg-1) 49.6-98.2 and Zn (mg kg- 1) 7.83-9.97. The SRAS was of: P (mg dm-3) 4.67-15.27, K (mg dm-3) 62.7-258.00, Ca (cmolc dm-3) 1.65-3.49, Mg (cmolc dm-3) 0.61- 0.99, S (mg dm-3) 6.94-27.2, B (mg dm-3) 0.43-0.61, Cu (mg dm-3) 0.15-0.43, Fe (mg dm-3) 31.05-100.20, Mn (mg dm-3) 8.78-56.60 and Zn (mg dm-3) 2.35-6.51. In several cases SRAF identified limitations in the organic Conilon coffee productivity that were not identified by DRIS. DRIS indicated limitation when the nutrient was inside of the SRAF. Manganese followed by P, Cu=Fe and N were the nutrients considered as deficient to the yield, when DRIS was used, on the other hand, when the SRAF was used Mn, Ca, Fe and N were considered deficient nutrients.
455. M. Pasqual, J. M. Cavalcante-Alves, \relax L. M. C. O. Andrade, A. B. Pereira, A. L. R. Maciel, and R. D. de Castro, “In Vitro Embryo Culture of Coffea Arabica: The Influence of NAA and BAP,” in Coffee Biotechnology and Quality, Springer, 2000, pp. 171–178. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-1068-8_14. Abstract
     Inter-specific and inter-generic crossing offer plant breeders a way to increase genetic variability and transfer of desirable genes among species, especially from wild plants to cultivated ones (Gomathinayagam et al., 1998). The use of hybridization between different species is frequently limited due to failures that can occur during pre- and post-fertilization, which can affect endosperm and/or embryo development leading to abortion or degeneration before maturation is reached (Mallikarjuna, 1999; Sukno et al., 1999; Angra et al., 1999). Hybrid embryos can be saved if they are removed before abortion and artificially cultivated in a nutritive medium (Asano and Imagawa, 1999). The embryo originated from a normal fecundation process can easily be separated and cultivated in aseptic conditions in an adequate culture medium. This will maintain them genetically stable, producing identical descendant to them. For the removal of the embryo, one need only to disinfect the external surface of the seed due to the fact that the embryo is located inside, in an sterile region of the seed. Therefore the in vitro contamination rate is very low in comparison to other cultures (Illg, 1985).
456. T. Pasutham, “The Effect of Seed Size and Root Pruning on Germination and Growth of Arabica Coffee Seedling (Coffea arabica L.),” Master's thesis, Maejo University, 2022. Abstract
     Selection of arabica coffee seeds before seeding or pruning of seedling root before transplanting is method that could be recommended to farmers for use in arabica coffee seedling productions. It has been observed that different seed sizes affect germination and seedling growth. Although Root pruning of seedlings before transplanting has been used as a method for controlling growth and yield of other plants, it has not been reported in arabica coffee. Therefore, the effect of seed size and root pruning on germination and growth of arabica coffee seedling was studied. This study is composed of 2 parts. First experiment was on the effect of seed size on germination and growth of arabica coffee seedling. Six hundred coffee cherries were collected from coffee trees within each of the four plots under the canopy of natural forest using purposive sampling method and seed sized were measured.Then, seeds were divided into 3 size categories according to weight, which were large (>2.21 g), medium (1.43-<2.21 g), and small (<1.43 g). In addition, coffee seeds were also categorized according to the ministry of agriculture and cooperatives grades using seed width as a criterion and resulted in 7 grades. Graded coffee seeds were then germinated in greenhouse condition and seedling growth was monitored over time. The results showed that differences among seed sizes either according to weight or width did not affect seed germination, seedling growth, or seed dry weight. However, lighter seeds appeared to germinate faster than heavier seeds. Second experiment look at the effect of root pruning on growth of arabica coffee seedling. For this, roots of 75 days old coffee seedlings were cut off 1 out of 3 parts of root length prior to transplanting and their growth were recorded and compared with the growth of unpruned seedlings. An experiment was repeated 7 times and 10 seedlings were measured in each replication. Assessment of root characteristics was done with the aid or ImageJ plugin: smart root tool. The results showed that arabica coffee seedlings of which roots had been pruned before transplanting had a 22.2 percent increase in root surface area over unpruned seedlings. The influence of such root pruning was evident only 20 days after transplanting. After that unpruned seedlings had an increase in root surface area equivalent to those of pruned seedlings. Other growth characteristics were not affected by root pruning. Therefore, this study shows that small seeds can be used in coffee seedling production, which can greatly reduce production costs for the seed business, as well as allow for an efficient use of arabica coffee seeds. As for the root pruning of seedlings before transplanting, it was revealed that the root system of arabica coffee seedlings was able to repair itself within 20 days after pruning.
457. É. B. Patay, T. Bencsik, and N. Papp, “Phytochemical Overview and Medicinal Importance of Coffea Species from the Past until Now,” Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine, vol. 9, no. 12, pp. 1127–1135, Dec. 2016. doi: 10.1016/j.apjtm.2016.11.008. Abstract
     Coffea (coffee) species are grown in almost all countries along the Equator. Many members of the genus have a large production history and an important role both in the global market and researches. Seeds (Coffeae semen) are successfully used in food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries due to its caffeine and high polyphenol content. Nowadays, the three best-known coffee species are Arabic (Coffea arabica L.), Robusta (Coffea robusta L. Linden), and Liberian coffees (Coffea liberica Hiern.). Even though, many records are available on coffee in scientific literature, wild coffee species like Bengal coffee (Coffea benghalensis Roxb. Ex Schult.) could offer many new opportunities and challenges for phytochemical and medical studies. In this comprehensive summary, we focused on the ethnomedicinal, phytochemical, and medical significance of coffee species up to the present.
458. A. K. Patel, D. Lodha, and N. S. Shekhawat, “An Improved Micropropagation Protocol for the Ex Situ Conservation of Mitragyna Parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. (Rubiaceae): An Endangered Tree of Pharmaceutical Importance,” In Vitro Cellular & Developmental Biology - Plant, vol. 56, no. 6, pp. 817–826, Dec. 2020. doi: 10.1007/s11627-020-10089-6. Abstract
     Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth., commonly known as “Kadam,” is an endangered and pharmaceutically valued tree of the family Rubiaceae. The numerous medicinal properties are attributed to the various alkaloids of this plant. Poor seedling survival (due to very small size of seeds, approximately 10,000 per gm), overexploitation and habitat destruction are the major constraints in conserving the wild stocks of this species. This paper reports a significant, improved, and repeatable micropropagation protocol of M. parvifolia using nodal explants of a mature tree. Nodal explants harvested during spring season from the lopped tree differentiated the maximum number of axillary shoots (5.3\,± 0.82 per node) on full-strength Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium containing 3.0 mg L−1 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) and additives (25 mg L−1 each of adenine sulfate, L-arginine, and citric acid and 50 mg L−1 ascorbic acid). Shoots were amplified in vitro through (1) recurrent transfer of mother explants and (2) subculturing on fresh nutrient medium. The greatest number of shoots (13.4\,± 1.26) with an average length of 6.2\,± 1.03 cm was produced after 4 wk on MS medium containing 0.5 mg L−1 BAP, 0.25 mg L−1 kinetin (Kin), 0.1 mg L−1 Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), additives, 100 mg L−1 activated charcoal (AC), and 0.8% (w/v) agar. This is the first report of concurrent ex vitro rooting and acclimatization (CEVRA) in M. parvifolia. About 90% micropropagated shoots rooted ex vitro on pulse treatment of 500 mg L−1 Indole-3-butyric acid (IBA; for 5 min) and produced 8.5\,± 0.97 roots per shoot with an average length of 9.40\,± 1.06 cm, after 5 wk. Over 80% of CEVRA plantlets were successfully transplanted to the soil in field. The defined protocol can be employed for conservation ex situ and restoration/rehabilitation/reintroduction in situ of M. parvifolia.
459. H. Paz, S. J. Mazer, and M. Martinez-Ramos, “Comparative Ecology of Seed Mass in Psychotria (Rubiaceae): Within- and between-Species Effects of Seed Mass on Early Performance,” Functional Ecology, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 707–718, 2005. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2435.2005.00984.x. Abstract
     1 Experimental field data and interspecific comparative analyses were used to detect effects of seed mass on seedling performance within and among seven species of Psychotria sown in gaps and shaded rainforest sites. In addition we compared the effects of seed mass within and among species to detect concordance between the two ecological scales. We used two comparative methods: phylogenetically independent contrasts and cross-species correlations. 2 Among species, we detected weak evidence of a positive correlation between seed mass and the probability of emergence in the shaded forest, and no effects of seed mass in gaps. 3 Among species, no significant correlations between seed mass and either seedling survival or seedling recruitment were found in any habitat. Other variables specific to each subgenus appear to be more important than seed mass in determining survival in the shaded forest. 4 There was a negative correlation between seed mass and relative growth rate (RGR) in both habitats. In gaps, small-seeded taxa exhibited particularly high RGR, compensating for the initial advantages of higher seed mass. 5 All species studied exhibited recruitment in gaps equal to or higher than that in the shaded forest. However, recruitment success in shaded forest relative to gaps increased with seed mass, indicating a higher affinity for shaded forest among larger-seeded taxa, but this relationship was only detected using PICS analysis. 6. Correlations between seed mass and seedling mass are similar within and among species, indicating a simple principle of mass transference. In contrast, correlations between seed mass and seedling emergence, seedling survival, seedling recruitment and RGR depend on the scale at which they are observed.
460. H. Paz, S. J. Mazer, and M. Martínez-Ramos, “Seed Mass, Seedling Emergence, and Environmental Factors in Seven Rain Forest Psychotria (Rubiaceae),” Ecology, vol. 80, no. 5, pp. 1594–1606, 1999. doi: 10.1890/0012-9658(1999)080[1594:SMSEAE]2.0.CO;2. Abstract
     We examined the effects of seed mass on performance between the time of seed dispersal and emergence within seven sympatric rain forest woody species of Psychotria in two contrasting natural habitats: gaps and shaded forest. We determined the effects of seed mass on emergence (the total proportion of emerged seedlings) and on the speed of emergence (the time necessary to reach 50% total emerged seedlings) in both greenhouse and field conditions, and we observed the effects of seed mass on the risk of removal by animals in the field. The effects of seed mass on performance were specific to species and habitat. For example, in two species, seed mass had a positive effect on emergence, while another showed a negative effect; for most of the species, effects on performance restricted to only one habitat (shaded forest or gap). Similarly, the results for effects of seed mass on the risk of removal were species- and habitat-specific. In the greenhouse, seed mass did not affect either emergence or the speed of emergence under either high or low light conditions. Our results suggest that: (i) seed mass did not have a general effect on emergence success and (ii) the effects of seed mass on seedling emergence are driven by external ecological factors more than by intrinsic effects of seed mass. Seed-removing animals appear to be an important ecological agent operating on intraspecific seed mass variation.
461. H. Paz and M. MartÍnez-Ramos, “Seed Mass and Seedling Performance Within Eight Species of Psychotria (Rubiaceae),” Ecology, vol. 84, no. 2, pp. 439–450, 2003. doi: 10.1890/0012-9658(2003)084[0439:SMASPW]2.0.CO;2. Abstract
     Large seeds have been hypothesized to confer survival advantages in the shaded forest, and small seeds to confer growth advantages in open habitats. We explored these hypotheses using experimental studies in both field and controlled conditions. Our experiments examined intraspecific effects of seed mass on seedling demography in eight sympatric woody species of Psychotria. We compared the effects of seed mass on seedling size (biomass), maximum relative growth rate (RGR), the proportion of emerged seedlings that survived until one year of age, and the proportion of sown seeds reaching the stage of one-year-old seedlings in gaps compared with shaded rain forest habitats, as well as in contrasting greenhouse light conditions. For each species, seeds were classified into four seed mass categories and introduced to three pairs of shaded forest gap sites. In the greenhouse, emerged seedlings from different seed mass categories were grown in contrasting light environments. A positive effect of seed mass on seedling survival was observed in six of seven species in the shaded forest but only in two species in gaps. Final seedling biomass was positively related to seed mass in five species in the shaded forest, but only in two species in gaps. In some species, RGR decreased with seed mass. Consequently, the biomass achieved by small-seeded seedlings with relatively fast growth rates was similar to that of seedlings derived from large seeds. The probability of recruitment increased with seed mass in four of seven species in the shaded forest, but only in two species in gaps. Negative effects of seed mass on recruitment occurred only in one species, and only in gaps. The positive effects of seed mass on seedling biomass and survival observed under shaded greenhouse conditions were weaker than those observed in the shaded forest. Overall, our results indicate that: (1) seed mass influences recruitment in natural forest habitats, (2) larger seeds confer higher probability of recruitment in the shaded forest by producing seedlings with larger size and higher probability of survival, and (3) in natural habitats ecological factors in addition to light (e.g., seed predators) operated selectively on seedlings emerging from seeds differing in mass. Corresponding Editor: W. J. Platt
462. H. M. Pearl, C. Nagai, P. H. Moore, D. L. Steiger, R. V. Osgood, and R. Ming, “Construction of a Genetic Map for Arabica Coffee,” Theoretical and Applied Genetics, vol. 108, no. 5, pp. 829–835, Mar. 2004. doi: 10.1007/s00122-003-1498-3. Abstract
     We have used AFLPs to construct a genetic linkage map on a pseudo-F2 population of arabica coffee (Coffea arabica L.) derived from a cross between the cultivars Mokka hybrid and Catimor. Sixty trees from this population were selected on the basis of plant height distribution to construct a linkage map. A total of 456 dominant markers and eight co-dominant markers were generated from 288 AFLP primer combinations. Of the total number of markers generated, 68% were from cv. Catimor, 30% from cv. Mokka hybrid, and 2% were co-dominant. This distribution suggests that the heterozygosity within the cv. Catimor sub-genomes was twice that within the cv. Mokka hybrid sub-genomes. Linkage groups were constructed using MAPMAKER version 3.0, resulting in 16 major linkage groups containing 4–21 markers, and 15 small linkage groups consisting of 2–3 linked markers each. The total length of the map was 1,802.8 cM, with an average distance of 10.2 cM between adjacent markers. This genetic map will serve as the framework for mapping QTL controlling source-sink traits in the same population.
463. B. J. Pearson et al., “Preliminary Examination of Mitragynine and 7-Hydroxymitragynine Synthesis in Response to Production Environment and Postharvest Techniques of Mitragyna Speciosa,” Acta Horticulturae, no. 1274, pp. 89–96, Mar. 2020. doi: 10.17660/ActaHortic.2020.1274.10.
464. A. C. Penido, V. U. V. Reis, É. M. de Rezende, D. K. Rocha, J. A. Oliveira, and S. D. V. F. da Rosa, “Cold Coffee Seeds Storage with Different Water Content,” Coffee Science - ISSN 1984-3909, vol. 16, pp. e161844–e161844, Jun. 2021. doi: 10.25186/.v16i.1844. Abstract
     Coffee seeds are classified as intermediate because they have low tolerance to desiccation and low longevity. Consequently, moisture control and storage conditions are important factors in maintaining the physiological quality of these seeds. Thus, the objective in this work was to evaluate the water content effect on coffee seed longevity. Seeds of five Coffea arabica cultivars from the 2016/2017 crop were used. Part of the harvested seeds was dried in the shade until reach 12% moisture and the other part did not go through drying process, remaining with 40% water content. The seeds were stored in a cold chamber at 10 ºC for a period of nine months, and the physiological quality was evaluated every three months by germination, root protrusion, seedlings with expanded cotyledonary leaves, seedling dry mass and enzymatic analysis of catalase enzymes and superoxide dismutase. Regardless of the cultivar, wet seeds coffee storage provides better maintenance of physiological quality for up to nine months. Seedling vigor is reduced throughout the storageperiod, regardless of seed water content. Key words: Coffea arabica; Moisture; Seed quality; Storage.
465. A. B. Pereira et al., “Enraizamento de Estacas de Três Cultivares de Coffea Arabica L. Em Diferentes Substratos,” in Agroclimatologia, 2000, p. 5. http://tot.dti.ufv.br/handle/123456789/546. Abstract
     It is possible to propagate Coffea arabica L. hybrids in commercial scale through rooting of cuttings. The objective was to verify the rooting of cuttings of three Coffea arabica L. cultivars, in five substrates. Herbaceous cuttings from orthotropics branches, with one bud, two leaves reduced to 1/3 of its size and 8-10 cm length, from Mundo Novo, Catuaí and Icatú cultivars, were planted in sand, earthworm humus, residual coffee machine processing, standard substrate (utilized in seed germination of coffee) and commercial substrate. The statistical design was randomized blocks, in 5 x 3 factorial scheme, with 3 replications and 6 cuttings per plot. Survival cuttings, sprout number, sprout length, dry weight matter of the aerial part, cuttings rooted, roots number and dry weight matter of the roots were the parameters evaluated. Best results were registered when sand, earthworm humus, residual coffee machine processing and the standard substrate were used. Catuaí and Icatú shower better rooting than Mundo Novo.
466. J. Pertel, D. C. F. dos S. Dias, L. A. dos S. Dias, E. E. de Lima e Borges, and D. Naveira, “Physiological Quality of Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Seeds during Storage.,” Revista Brasileira de Armazenamento, no. Especial 10, pp. 15–23, 2008.
467. J. Pertel, D. Naveira, D. C. F. dos S. Dias, L. A. dos S. Dias, and E. E. de Lima e Borges, “Physiological and Biochemical Alterations in Artifically Aged Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Seeds.,” Revista Brasileira de Armazenamento, no. Especial 11, pp. 16–23, 2009.
468. L. Philippe, B. Benoít, and E. Hervé, “Breeding Coffee (Coffea Arabica) for Sustainable Production,” in Breeding Plantation Tree Crops: Tropical Species, Springer, 2009, pp. 525–543. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-0-387-71201-7_14.
469. S. Phongprueksapattana, “Induction of Agrobacterium Rhizogenes Transformed Hairy Root Cultures from Mitragyna Speciosa (Roxb.) Korth.,” PhD thesis, Prince of Songkla University, 2007. https://kb.psu.ac.th/psukb/bitstream/2016/12918/1/303147.pdf. Abstract
     The hairy root culture of Mitragyna speciosa was induced with the wild type Agrobacterium rhizogenes ATCC 15834 from leaf vein explants. The hairy roots were identified for the rooting genes loci of rolA and rolB by the polymerase chain reaction. The results showed that the efficiency of A. rhizogenes genes transformation was about 60%. The transformed hairy roots appeared branching with pubescent hairs. Study on the appropriate medium for growth of the hairy roots suggested that among 9 different kinds of media, WPM supplemented with 0.5 mg/l 1naphthalene acetic acid was suitable medium for promoting the growth. Study on secondary metabolite production, the n-hexane extract of the hairy roots was prepared and the compounds were isolated by silica gel column chromatography, affording the MSF1 and MSF2 with the yield of 0.016% (w/w) and 0.027% (w/w), respectively. Elucidation of their structures using 1H- and 13CNMR spectroscopic methods, indicated that MSF1 was a mixture of β-sitosterol and stigmasterol (ratio 1:1) and MSF2 was a mixture of ursolic acid and oleanolic acid (ratio 5:1). The growth curve and the ursolic acid production curve of the hairy root culture were plotted. The growth cycle of the hairy root culture was realized within 40 days. The production curve of the hairy roots indicated that ursolic acid was contained in the M. speciosa hairy roots and reached the maximum yield of 3.47±0.03 mg/g dry wt at a late linear phase. In this study, the micropropagation of M. speciosa was also performed. Shoot multiplication was successfully induced from axillary buds in WPM supplemented with 0.1 mg/l thidiazuron. The plantlet regeneration was successfully acclimatized with 60% survival rate. The mitragynine content of the regenerated plant and the in vitro plantlets at 5-months old were determined using the TLC-densitometric method. The results showed that the regenerated plant contained mitragynine of 14.25±0.25 mg/g dry wt, whereas the in vitro plantlet contained 4.45±0.09 mg/g dry wt.
470. S. Phongprueksapattana, W. Putalun, N. Keawpradub, and J. Wungsintaweekul, “Mitragyna Speciosa: Hairy Root Culture for Triterpenoid Production and High Yield of Mitragynine by Regenerated Plants,” Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C, vol. 63, no. 9-10, pp. 691–698, Oct. 2008. doi: 10.1515/znc-2008-9-1014. Abstract
     Hairy root cultures of Mitragyna speciosa were established by infection of Agrobacterium rhizogenes ATCC 15834 and maintained in McCown woody plant medium (WPM) supplemented with 0.5 mg/l naphthaleneacetic acid. The hairy roots were identified for the rooting genes loci of rolA and rolB by polymerase chain reaction. For studying the secondary metabolite production, the n-hexane extract of the hairy roots was prepared and the compounds were isolated by silica gel column chromatography, affording triterpenoids (ursolic acid and oleanolic acid) and phytosterols (β-sitosterol and stigmasterol). The shoots from the hairy root cultures were regenerated and differentiated to the plantlets. For micropropagation, shoot multiplication was successfully induced from the axillary buds of the regenerated plantlets in WPM supplemented with 0.1 mg/l thidiazuron. The mitragynine contents of 5-monthold regenerated plants and in vitro plantlets (germinated from seeds) were determined using the TLC-densitometric method. The regenerated plants contained (14.25 ± 0.25) mg/g dry wt mitragynine, whereas the in vitro plantlets contained (4.45 ± 0.09) mg/g dry wt.
471. H. A. Pinheiro, F. M. DaMatta, A. R. M. Chaves, E. P. B. Fontes, and M. E. Loureiro, “Drought Tolerance in Relation to Protection against Oxidative Stress in Clones of Coffea Canephora Subjected to Long-Term Drought,” Plant Science, vol. 167, no. 6, pp. 1307–1314, Dec. 2004. doi: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2004.06.027. Abstract
     Four clones of Coffea canephora (Robusta coffee) representing drought-tolerant (14 and 120) and drought-sensitive (46 and 109A) genotypes were submitted to slowly imposed water deficit, until predawn leaf water potential approximately −3.0MPa was reached. Drought-tolerant clones were better able to maintain their leaf water status than drought-sensitive clones after withholding irrigation. Regardless of the clones investigated, the net carbon assimilation rate decreased under drought stress, but little or no effect of drought on the quantum yield of electron transport was observed. The photosynthetic apparatus of clone 120 was more tolerant to both drought and paraquat-mediated oxidative stress, with no clear distinction amongst the other clones in this regard. Drought triggered increases in superoxide dismutase (clones 109A and 120), ascorbate peroxidase (clones 14, 46 and 109A), catalase and guaiacol peroxidase (clones 46 and 109A), and also in glutathione reductase (clone 46) and dehydroascorbate reductase (clone 109A). Activity of monodehydroascorbate reductase was not induced in drought-stressed plants. Maximal catalytic activities of the two last enzymes were much lower than that of ascorbate peroxidase, irrespective of the clone investigated. No drought-induced decrease in enzyme activity was found, except for glutathione reductase in clone 120. In any case, oxidative damage appeared to be evident only in clone 109A. A general link between protection against oxidative stress with differences in clonal tolerance to drought was not observed.
472. H. U. G. O. A. PINHEIRO, F. Á. B. I. O. M. DaMATTA, A. G. N. A. L. D. O. R. M. CHAVES, M. A. R. C. E. L. O. E. LOUREIRO, and \relax C. A. R. L. O. S. DUCATTI, “Drought Tolerance Is Associated with Rooting Depth and Stomatal Control of Water Use in Clones of Coffea Canephora,” Annals of Botany, vol. 96, no. 1, pp. 101–108, Jul. 2005. doi: 10.1093/aob/mci154. Abstract
     • Background and Aims Drought is a major environmental constraint affecting growth and production of Coffea canephora. Selection of C. canephora clones has been largely empirical as little is known about how clones respond physiologically to drought. Using clones previously shown to differ in drought tolerance, this study aimed to identify the extent of variation of water use and the mechanisms responsible, particularly those associated morphological traits.• Methods Clones (14 and 120, drought-tolerant; 46 and 109A, drought-sensitive, based on their abilities to yield under drought) were grown in 120-L pots until they were 12-months old, when an irrigation and a drought treatment were applied; plants were droughted until the pressure potential (ψx) before dawn (pre-dawn) reached −3·0 MPa. Throughout the drought period, ψx and stomatal conductance (gs) were measured. At the end of the experiment, carbon isotope ratio and parameters from pressure–volume curves were estimated. Morphological traits were also assessed.• Key Results and Conclusions With irrigation, plant hydraulic conductance (KL), midday ψx and total biomass were all greater in clones 109A and 120 than in the other clones. Root mass to leaf area ratio was larger in clone 109A than in the others, whereas rooting depth was greater in drought-tolerant than in drought-sensitive clones. Predawn ψx of −3·0 MPa was reached fastest by 109A, followed progressively by clones 46, 120 and 14. Decreases in gs with declining ψx, or increasing evaporative demand, were similar for clones 14, 46, and 120, but lower in 109A. Carbon isotope ratio increased under drought; however, it was lower in 109A than in other clones. For all clones, ψx, gs and KL recovered rapidly following re-watering. Differences in root depth, KL and stomatal control of water use, but not osmotic or elastic adjustments, largely explained the differences in relative tolerance to drought stress of clones 14 and 120 compared with clones 46 and 109A.
473. C. Pinkalski, K.-M. V. Jensen, C. Damgaard, and J. Offenberg, “Foliar Uptake of Nitrogen from Ant Faecal Droplets: An Overlooked Service to Ant-Plants,” Journal of Ecology, vol. 106, no. 1, pp. 289–295, 2018. doi: 10.1111/1365-2745.12841. Abstract
     Nutrient supplies to plants from ants are well known from specialised myrmecophytic symbioses and from plants growing in soil close to ant nests. However, above-ground nutrient pathways may play a largely unrecognised role also in less specialised ant–plant interactions—the numerous facultative relationships, where ants forage on plants. In a laboratory experiment, weaver ants (Oecophylla smaragdina) were confined to the canopies of coffee (Coffea arabica) seedlings, excluding any ant-to-plant transfer of nutrients via the soil strata. When ants were fed 15N-labelled glycine and subsequently deposited faecal droplets on the seedlings, coffee leaves showed increased levels of 15N and total nitrogen compared to control plants without ants. This was evident for both exposed leaves and leaves covered in plastic bags (i.e. not directly exposed to ants). Thus, nitrogen from ant excretions was absorbed through the coffee leaves, and subsequently, translocated within the plants and possibly leading to the observed higher shoot/root (wet weight) ratios observed on ant-plants compared to controls. Synthesis. These results reveal an undescribed foliar uptake of ant-provided nutrients. If this is a general mechanism, a vast amount of ant–plant interactions involves fertilisation. Foliar fertilisation by ants may be an important steady benefit to plants, which has driven the evolution of ant–plant mutualisms in parallel with the well-recognised but probably more fluctuating benefit from herbivore protection. Given the world-wide abundance of plant canopies foraged by ants, this nutrient pathway may be of high ecological significance.
474. H. V. Pinkley, “Etymology of Psychotria in View of a New Use of the Genus,” Rhodora, vol. 71, no. 788, pp. 535–540, 1969. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23311688.
475. A. P. S. Pires, C. D. R. Oliveira, and M. Yonamine, “Ayahuasca: Uma Revisão Dos Aspectos Farmacológicos e Toxicológicos,” Revista de Ciências Farmacêuticas Básica e Aplicada, vol. 31, no. 1, Jan. 2010. http://rcfba.fcfar.unesp.br/index.php/ojs/article/view/406. Abstract
     A ayahuasca é uma bebida psicoativa originariamente utilizada em rituais de tribos indígenas da região amazônica. Esta bebida é preparada pela infusão de caules da Banisteriopsis caapi Morton, que contém β-carbolinas que são inibidoras da monoaminoxidase (MAO), e de folhas da Psychotria viridis Ruiz & Pavón, que contém o alucinógeno N,N-dimetiltriptamina (DMT). A enzima MAO degrada a DMT no fígado e intestino. No Brasil, a ayahuasca tem sido incorporada em rituais de grupos sincréticos religiosos e seu uso dentro do contexto religioso é amparado por lei federal. Atualmente, esses grupos têm se espalhado na Europa e Estados Unidos, chamando a atenção de pesquisadores internacionais quanto aos efeitos da ayahuasca. Estudos têm indicado que a ayahuasca poderia ter aplicações terapêuticas como no tratamento da farmacodependência e até sugerem seu uso seguro por adultos sadios. Entretanto, poucos estudos têm sido conduzidos para melhor avaliação de suas propriedades. O objetivo do artigo é mostrar uma revisão geral da história até as recentes descobertas envolvendo a farmacologia e a toxicologia da ayahuasca.
476. A. P. S. Pires, C. D. R. De Oliveira, S. Moura, F. A. Dörr, W. A. E. Silva, and M. Yonamine, “Gas Chromatographic Analysis of Dimethyltryptamine and β-Carboline Alkaloids in Ayahuasca, an Amazonian Psychoactive Plant Beverage,” Phytochemical Analysis, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 149–153, 2009. doi: 10.1002/pca.1110. Abstract
     Introduction Ayahuasca is obtained by infusing the pounded stems of Banisteriopsis caapi in combination with the leaves of Psychotria viridis. P. viridis is rich in the psychedelic indole N,N-dimethyltryptamine, whereas B. caapi contains substantial amounts of β-carboline alkaloids, mainly harmine, harmaline and tetrahydroharmine, which are monoamine-oxidase inhibitors. Because of differences in composition in ayahuasca preparations, a method to measure their main active constituents is needed. Objective To develop a gas chromatographic method for the simultaneous determination of dimethyltryptamine and the main β-carbolines found in ayahuasca preparations. Methodology The alkaloids were extracted by means of solid phase extraction (C18) and detected by gas chromatography with nitrogen/phosphorous detector. Results The lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) was 0.02 mg/mL for all analytes. The calibration curves were linear over a concentration range of 0.02–4.0 mg/mL (r2 > 0.99). The method was also precise (RSD < 10%). Conclusion A simple gas chromatographic method to determine the main alkaloids found in ayahuasca was developed and validated. The method can be useful to estimate administered doses in animals and humans for further pharmacological and toxicological investigations of ayahuasca. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
477. D. L. Pitol et al., “Ayahuasca Alters Structural Parameters of the Rat Aorta,” Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology, vol. 66, no. 1, p. 58, Jul. 2015. doi: 10.1097/FJC.0000000000000243. Abstract
     Ayahuasca is a hallucinogenic brew traditionally used by Northwestern Amazonian indigenous groups for therapeutic purposes. It is prepared by the decoction of Banisteriopsis caapi with the leaves of Psychotria viridis. Banisteriopsis caapi contains β-carbolines that are inhibitors of monoamine oxidase and P. viris is rich in dimethyltryptamine, a 5-HT1A/2A/2C agonist. Acute ayahuasca administration produces moderate cardiovascular effects in healthy volunteers, but information regarding long-term use is lacking. This study investigated the effects of ayahuasca (2–4 mL/kg) in the rat aorta after acute and chronic (14 days) administration. Ayahuasca caused flattening and stretching of vascular smooth muscle cells and changes in the arrangement and distribution of collagen and elastic fibers. Chronic treatment with the higher dose significantly increased media thickness and the ratio of media thickness to lumen diameter. More research is needed on the cardiovascular function of long-term ayahuasca consumers.
478. M. Politi, G. Tresca, L. Menghini, and C. Ferrante, “Beyond the Psychoactive Effects of Ayahuasca: Cultural and Pharmacological Relevance of Its Emetic and Purging Properties,” Planta Medica, vol. 88, no. 14, pp. 1275–1286, Nov. 2022. doi: 10.1055/a-1675-3840. Abstract
     The herbal preparation ayahuasca has been an important part of ritual and healing practices, deployed to access invisible worlds in several indigenous groups in the Amazon basin and among mestizo populations of South America. The preparation is usually known to be composed of two main plants, Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis, which produce both hallucinogenic and potent purging and emetic effects; currently, these are considered its major pharmacological activities. In recent decades, the psychoactive and visionary effect of ayahuasca has been highly sought after by the shamanic tourism community, which led to the popularization of ayahuasca use globally and to a cultural distancing from its traditional cosmological meanings, including that of purging and emesis. Further, the field of ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology has also produced relatively limited data linking the phytochemical diversity of ayahuasca with the different degrees of its purging and emetic versus psychoactive effects. Similarly, scientific interest has also principally addressed the psychological and mental health effects of ayahuasca, overlooking the cultural and pharmacological importance of the purging and emetic activity. The aim of this review is therefore to shed light on the understudied purging and emetic effect of ayahuasca herbal preparation. It firstly focuses on reviewing the cultural relevance of emesis and purging in the context of Amazonian traditions. Secondly, on the basis of the main known phytochemicals described in the ayahuasca formula, a comprehensive pharmacological evaluation of their emetic and purging properties is presented.
479. Y. Poltronieri, H. E. P. Martinez, and P. R. Cecon, “Effect of Zinc and Its Form of Supply on Production and Quality of Coffee Beans,” Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, vol. 91, no. 13, pp. 2431–2436, 2011. doi: 10.1002/jsfa.4483. Abstract
     BACKGROUND: In Brazil, the usual forms of zinc (Zn) supply to coffee plants have limitations that compromise the element availability to the plant. This study proposes to test an alternative approach to supplying the nutrient to Coffea arabica L. using trunk implanted zinc tablets. Additionally, the effect of Zn on the production and quality of coffee beans was also evaluated. RESULTS: The highest total coffee bean production was recorded in plants implanted with Zn tablets (TA), while the lowest was recorded in the control treatment, without zinc supply (WZn), reaching a bianual production of 188.2 and 130.1 60-kg bags of processed beans per hectare, respectively. In the treatments where Zn were applied as tablet implantation or as foliage spraying (SZn); the bean size was larger, while the grain electrical conductivity and potassium leaching were lower compared with WZn. CONCLUSION: Zn supply via tablet implantation into tree trunks provides yield and quality similar to those obtained by foliage spraying. Independent of the form of supply, Zn positively influences the production and quality of coffee beans. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry
480. M. F. Pompelli, S. C. V. Martins, W. C. Antunes, A. R. M. Chaves, and F. M. DaMatta, “Photosynthesis and Photoprotection in Coffee Leaves Is Affected by Nitrogen and Light Availabilities in Winter Conditions,” Journal of Plant Physiology, vol. 167, no. 13, pp. 1052–1060, Sep. 2010. doi: 10.1016/j.jplph.2010.03.001. Abstract
     Coffee is native to shady environments but often grows better and produces higher yields without shade, though at the expense of high fertilization inputs, particularly nitrogen (N). Potted plants were grown under full sunlight and shade (50%) conditions and were fertilized with nutrient solutions containing either 0 or 23mMN. Measurements were made in southeastern Brazil during winter conditions, when relatively low night temperatures and high diurnal insolation are common. Overall, the net carbon assimilation rate was quite low, which was associated with diffusive, rather than biochemical, constraints. N deficiency led to decreases in the concentrations of chlorophylls (Chl) and total carotenoids as well as in the Chl/N ratio. These conditions also led to qualitative changes in the carotenoid composition, e.g., increased antheraxanthin (A) and zeaxanthin (Z) pools on a Chl basis, particularly at high light, which was linked to increased thermal dissipation of absorbed light. The variable-to-maximum fluorescence ratio at predawn decreased with increasing A+Z pools and decreased linearly with decreasing N. We showed that this ratio was inadequate for assessing photoinhibition under N limitation. Expressed per unit mass, the activities of superoxide dismutase and glutathione reductase were not altered with the treatments. In contrast, ascorbate peroxidase activity was lower in low N plants, particularly under shade, whereas catalase activity was lower in shaded plants than in sun-grown plants, regardless of the N level. Glutamine synthetase activity was greater in sun-grown plants than in shaded individuals at a given N level and decreased with decreasing N application. Our results suggest that the photoprotective and antioxidant capacity per amount of photons absorbed was up-regulated by a low N supply; nevertheless, this capacity, regardless of the light conditions, was not enough to prevent oxidative damage, as judged from the increases in the H2O2 and malondialdehyde concentrations and electrolyte leakage. We demonstrated that N fertilization could adequately protect the coffee plants against photodamage independently of the anticipated positive effects of N on the photosynthetic capacity.
481. D. D. Porto, A. T. Henriques, and A. G. Fett-Neto, “Bioactive Alkaloids from South American Psychotria and Related Species,” The Open Bioactive Compounds Journal, vol. 2, no. 1, Sep. 2009. doi: 10.2174/1874847300902010029. Abstract
     Bioactive Alkaloids from South American Psychotria and Related Species
482. S. C. P. Posse et al., “Impact of Drying Methods Over the Germinative Potential of Conilon Coffee of Late Maturation,” Coffee Science - ISSN 1984-3909, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 484–492, Dec. 2019. http://www.coffeescience.ufla.br/index.php/Coffeescience/article/view/1624. Abstract
     This study aimed to evaluate the effect of different drying methods (regarding temperature and drying time) over the seed moisture and germination of seeds of Coffea canephora, harvested from genotypes of late maturation. For this end, seeds from selected genotypes were harvested and dried using two different methods: drying at 25 ˚C with natural circulation of air and drying at 35 ˚C with artificial circulation of air. The seeds were evaluated to quantify the loss of moisture content, and their germinative potential was assessed by parameters of germination speed, and the proportion of seedlings with healthy germination originated from them. The results show it is possible to apply different drying methods; using different systems, temperatures and times of exposure; to decrease the moisture content of seeds of C. canephora, from 50% (freshly harvested seeds from genotypes of late maturation, in July) to under 18% (dried seeds). Even if the initial stages of the drying process, while the seeds still present high moisture content, are similar for both methods, the method with artificial circulation of air at 35 ˚C promotes the drying speed and is able to achieve the lower levels of seed moisture using less than half of the time required by method with natural circulation of air at 25 ˚C. This faster moisture removal, however, has negative impacts over the germinative potential of the seeds, which are not observed for seeds subjected to the slow natural drying.
483. S. C. P. Posse et al., “The Intensity of the Drying Process Influencing the Germinative Potential of Seeds of Coffea Canephora Harvested from Genotypes of Early Maturation,” Pensar Acadêmico, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 1–15, Feb. 2022. http://www.pensaracademico.unifacig.edu.br/index.php/pensaracademico/article/view/2667. Abstract
     Several physical, chemical, and biological attributes of coffee seeds can be influenced by the drying and storage conditions. To propagate the recommended cultivars using seeds, it is often necessary to grow seedlings from genotypes of different maturation cycles, for which the mature seeds are only available in different moments throughout the year. This study aimed to test the germination of seeds of Coffea canephora Pierre ex A. Froehner from genotypes of early maturation, after being subjected to different periods of natural or artificial drying. For this end, two trials were developed, following split-plot (in time) scheme and completely randomized design, to study the moisture content of seed dried by two different drying process along 27 periods (between 0 and 320 hours), and the germinative potential, based on the germination speed index and proportion of germinated seeds after 30 days, of seeds dried by two drying process and 12 levels of seed moisture (between 50% and 8%). The results show that artificial drying at 35 ˚C removes seed moisture faster than the natural drying at 25 ˚C. Both drying methods can be used for decreasing seed moisture. However, the faster water loss negatively affects the germinative potential of seeds of genotypes of C. canephora of early maturation. The natural drying at 25 ˚C seems to have lesser impacts over the germination process, which may represent a good alternative if the seeds are stored at low levels of moisture.
484. S. G. Prado, J. A. Collazo, and R. E. Irwin, “Resurgence of Specialized Shade Coffee Cultivation: Effects on Pollination Services and Quality of Coffee Production,” Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, vol. 265, pp. 567–575, Oct. 2018. doi: 10.1016/j.agee.2018.07.002. Abstract
     Since the early 2000s, there has been a resurgence in shade coffee production on the island of Puerto Rico. The newly restored specialized shade canopy consists of four native tree species, three of which are nitrogen fixers, and is intended to provide 30% shade cover once the trees are matured. Though much is known about the benefits of rustic and traditional shade plantations to coffee production, there is little information available for specialized shade plantations. Here, we investigate the ways in which fruit set, seed predation, bean weight, proportion of peaberries (i.e., malformed fruits), and beverage quality differ between sun and specialized shade plantations of Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora. Additionally, to assess whether coffee plants were pollen limited, we conducted a pollen supplementation experiment in which we compared pollen deposition and berry production on hand-pollinated branches to those of naturally, open-pollinated ones. We found that there was no evidence of pollen limitation on fruit set between sun and specialized shade plantations of C. arabica or C. canephora. We found that specialized shade benefits the proportion of C. arabica fruit set, without compromising bean weight or the proportion of peaberries produced. In comparison, C. canephora showed no improvement in the proportion of fruits set with specialized shade; however, beans from open-pollinated flowers weighed more in specialized shade than sun. Beverage quality was marginally better under shade, and for hand-pollinated flowers. Our results add to the limited body of work investigating the benefits of specialized shade coffee plantations on ecosystem services.
485. G. T. Prance, “Notes on the Use of Plant Hallucinogens in Amazonian Brazil,” Economic Botany, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 62–68, 1970. doi: 10.1007/BF02860638.
486. P. Praphutphitthaya, C. Tiyayon, T. Chetiyanukornkul, and T. Pankasemsuk, “Some Biochemical Changes of Early Germinated Arabica Coffee Seeds (Coffea Arabica L.) after Treated by Brassin-like Substance,” วารสารแก่นเกษตร, vol. 44, no. 4, pp. 693–702, 2016. https://li01.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/agkasetkaj/article/view/250494. Abstract
     Effect of Brassin-like substance on chemical compositions of Arabica coffee seeds was studied during early germination. The substance has played an important role in promoting seed germination and chemical composi-tion during germination. In this study, coffee seeds were soaked in four Brassin-like substance (BS) concentrations 0, 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 mg/L for 24 hours before germination test. Total sugars, protein and fat contents were determined at 0, 2, 4, 6 and 8 days after soaking. The study was conducted as 4 × 5 factorial in completely randomized design: CRD. The results revealed that BS application significantly effected on nutritional quality during early germination. Total sugars reached the highest amount at day 8 when soaked in 1.0 and 2.0 mg/L BS. As for protein content, coffee seeds in every treatment showed the greatest amount at day 4 of germination especially, of coffee seeds for ones soaked in 1.0 and 2.0 mg/L BS. Fat content gradually increased upon the first 4 days of germination. Coffee seeds in 1.0 and 2.0 mg/L BS showed higher fat content than the seeds soaked in 0 and 0.5 mg/L BS. Therefore, BS application could be a promising alternative regulator for enhancing coffee seed quality during early germination.
487. S. C. Praxedes, F. M. DaMatta, M. E. Loureiro, M. A. G. Ferrão, and A. T. Cordeiro, “Effects of Long-Term Soil Drought on Photosynthesis and Carbohydrate Metabolism in Mature Robusta Coffee (Coffea Canephora Pierre Var. Kouillou) Leaves,” Environmental and Experimental Botany, vol. 56, no. 3, pp. 263–273, Jul. 2006. doi: 10.1016/j.envexpbot.2005.02.008. Abstract
     Four clones of robusta coffee representing drought-tolerant (14 and 120) and drought-sensitive (46 and 109A) genotypes were submitted to a slowly imposed water deficit. Sampling and measurements were performed when predawn leaf water potential (Ψpd) approximately −2.0 and −3.0MPa was reached. Regardless of the clone evaluated, drought led to sharper decreases in stomatal conductance than in photosynthesis, which was accompanied by significant declines in internal to ambient CO2 concentration ratio. Little or no effect of drought on chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters was observed. Regardless of the stress intensity, starch decreased remarkably. This was not accompanied by significant changes in concentration of soluble sugars, with the exception of clone 120 in which a rise in sucrose and hexose concentrations was found when Ψpd reached −3.0MPa. At Ψpd=−2.0MPa, activity of acid invertase increased only in clone 120; at Ψpd=−3.0MPa, it increased in clones 14, 46 and 120, while activity of sucrose synthase declined, but only in clone 109A. Drought-induced decrease in ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase activity was found only in clones 14 and 46, irrespective of stress intensity. At Ψpd=−3.0MPa, maximal extractable and activation state of sucrose-phosphate synthase (SPS) decreased in all clones with the exception of clone 120, in which SPS activity was maintained in parallel to a rising activity of fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase. Changes in SPS activity could neither be explained by the CO2 decrease linked to stomatal closure nor by differences in leaf water status.
488. P. Priyono, “Evaluation of Somatic Embryogenesis Ability in Robusta Coffee (Coffea Canephora Pierre),” Pelita Perkebunan (a Coffee and Cocoa Research Journal), vol. 26, no. 2, 2010. doi: 10.22302/iccri.jur.pelitaperkebunan.v26i2.126. Abstract
     Somatic embryogenesis (SE) should be very effective for propagation of coffee species. Evaluation of indirect somatic embryogenesis (ISE) and direct somatic embryogenesis (DSE) are useful for describing cell proliferation pre- cedes embryogenesis. The research aimed to evaluate the ISE and DSE ability of Coffea canephora Pierre which performed on a great genetic diversity, was carried out at the Nestlé R&D Centre Tours France in cluding the accessions derived from a coffee core collection of Nestle and three clones of ICCRI. Three aspects, namely: SE process, SE diversity and SE stability were evaluated. The results showed that both DSE and ISE process were observed in present study. These results indicated that both SE processes in C. canephora appeared to be independent mechanism. Under given experimental conditions, SE ability depended on the genotype. Diversity for SE ability was observed not only among three genetic groups of C. canephora (Congolese, Guinean, and Conillon), but also within the genetic groups. Moreover, SE was reproducible and stable for ex- plants from cuttings of the given genotype. Interestingly, among three clones of ICCRI, namely BP409, BP961 and Q121 which were used as parents for con- trolled crosses, showed significant differences suggesting which were possible segregation within their progenies for ISE ability.
489. C. G. S. Queiroz, A. Alonso, M. Mares-Guia, and A. C. Magalhães, “Chilling-Induced Changes in Membrane Fluidity and Antioxidant Enzyme Activities in Coffea Arabica L. Roots,” Biologia Plantarum, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 403–413, Apr. 1998. doi: 10.1023/A:1001802528068. Abstract
     Exposure of coffee to low temperatures caused growth inhibition, changes in metabolic rates, and membrane alterations. Root tissue exposed to 10 °C evolved significantly lower rates of metabolic heat compared with controls grown at 25 °C, and the values were closely associated with the observed root growth inhibition. Electron paramagnetic resonance spectra of intact tissues showed that the spin probe 5-doxylstearic acid was capable to intercalate within the cellular membrane lipids. Indeed, at the depth of the 5th carbon atoms of the alkyl chains, the nitroxide radical detected more rigid membranes in seedlings exposed to 10 °C compared with 25 °C treated samples. Ascorbate peroxidase and catalase activities did not show appreciable changes under chilling conditions, while guaiacol peroxidase activity increased 55 % compared to the control. On the other hand, glutathione reductase activity decreased, in parallel to a significant decline in the capacity to reduce triphenyl-tetrazolium. Our results showed a marked correlation between lipid peroxidation and root tissue damage, which seemed to be associated with increased membrane rigidity.
490. A. O. Quintana-Escobar, G. I. Nic-Can, R. M. G. Avalos, V. M. Loyola-Vargas, and E. Gongora-Castillo, “Transcriptome Analysis of the Induction of Somatic Embryogenesis in Coffea Canephora and the Participation of ARF and Aux/IAA Genes,” PeerJ, vol. 7, p. e7752, 2019. doi: 10.7717/peerj.7752. Abstract
     Background Somatic embryogenesis (SE) is a useful biotechnological tool to study the morpho-physiological, biochemical and molecular processes during the development of Coffea canephora. Plant growth regulators (PGR) play a key role during cell differentiation in SE. The Auxin-response-factor (ARF) and Auxin/Indole-3-acetic acid (Aux/IAA) are fundamental components involved in the signaling of the IAA. The IAA signaling pathway activates or represses the expression of genes responsive to auxins during the embryogenic transition of the somatic cells. The growing development of new generation sequencing technologies (NGS), as well as bioinformatics tools, has allowed us to broaden the landscape of SE study of various plant species and identify the genes directly involved. Methods Analysis of transcriptome expression profiles of the C. canephora genome and the identification of a particular set of differentially expressed genes (DEG) during SE are described in this study. Results A total of eight ARF and seven Aux/IAA differentially expressed genes were identified during the different stages of the SE induction process. The quantitative expression analysis showed that ARF18 and ARF5 genes are highly expressed after 21 days of the SE induction, while Aux/IAA7 and Aux/IAA12 genes are repressed. Discussion The results of this study allow a better understanding of the genes involved in the auxin signaling pathway as well as their expression profiles during the SE process.
491. F. Quiroz-Figueroa, M. Monforte-González, R. M. Galaz-Ávalos, and V. M. Loyola-Vargas, “Direct Somatic Embryogenesis in Coffea Canephora,” in Plant Cell Culture Protocols, Springer, 2006, pp. 111–117. https://link.springer.com/protocol/10.1385/1-59259-959-1:111. Abstract
     Somatic embryogenesis (SE) provides a useful model to study embryo development in plants. In contrast to zygotic embryogenesis, SE can easily be observed, the culture conditions can be controlled, and large quantities of embryos can be easily obtained. In Coffea spp several model systems have been reported for in vitro SE induction. SE for coffee was first reported in Coffea canephora. Several systems have been developed since then, including SE from callus cultures derived from leaf explants; a two-phase experimental protocol for SE from leaves of Coffea arabica; and from leaf explants of Arabusta or C. arabica using a medium with cytokinins. Here we report a protocol using young leaves from in vitro seedling pre-conditioned with growth regulators. This is a simplified method to obtain a faster and more efficient protocol to produce direct somatic embryos in C. canephora.
492. F. Quiroz-Figueroa, C. Fuentes-Cerda, R. Rojas-Herrera, and V. Loyola-Vargas, “Histological Studies on the Developmental Stages and Differentiation of Two Different Somatic Embryogenesis Systems of Coffea Arabica,” Plant Cell Reports, vol. 20, no. 12, pp. 1141–1149, 2002. doi: 10.1007/s00299-002-0464-x. Abstract
     Histocytological analysis carried out on leaf explants of Coffea arabica undergoing somatic embryogenesis revealed that, using a culture method involving a single Gelrite-containing semisolid medium, the entire region surrounding the edge of the plant-derived leaf explants showed the differentiation of organized structures with little or no callusing. Histological examination of embryogenesis without callus formation (direct somatic embryogenesis) revealed that at approximately 1 week after the explant had been placed in culture, the development of the embryo began in the form of a small, isodiametric, densely cytoplasmic cell that underwent a series of organized divisions. In embryogenesis from callus (indirect somatic embryogenesis), however, the embryogenic cell was observed within the first week. Our histological observations indicate that both direct and indirect somatic embryos of coffee that form on explanted leaf segments and callus, respectively, have a unicellular origin.
493. R. B. Raffa, Kratom and Other Mitragynines: The Chemistry and Pharmacology of Opioids from a Non-Opium Source. CRC Press, 2014. Abstract
     Opioids such as morphine, codeine, and oxycodone are extracts or analogs isolated from a single source: the opium poppy. For a long time, it was believed to be nature’s only source of opioids. But it now appears that biological diversity has evolved an alternative source of opioid compounds—those derived from the plant Mitragyna speciosa. This plant, known as Kratom in Thailand or Biak-Biak in Malaysia, has long been used locally as treatment for pain, fever reduction, diarrhea, and even depression. Kratom and Other Mitragynines: The Chemistry and Pharmacology of Opioids from a Non-Opium Source presents an introduction to the chemical and biological properties of alkaloids isolated from M. speciosa as well as their synthetic analogs. The book covers various topics including phytochemistry, medicinal chemistry, and pharmacology. Current research, analgesic effects, and addiction potential are also discussed. As the first extensive text on the basic science and clinical use of Kratom, the book provides readers with a concise yet comprehensive introduction to nature’s "other opioid."
494. M. Rakocevic and E. R. Batista, “Photosynthetic light curve parameters over vertical profile of Coffea arabica plants after five years of FACE experiment.,” 2019. http://www.alice.cnptia.embrapa.br/handle/doc/1116357. Abstract
     Trends in climate changes indicate that the air [CO2] will continue to increase. The first plant response to elevated [CO2] (e[CO2]) is the increased photosynthetic rate. Photosynthetic rate dependence on light (A/PAR curves) is characterized by several parameters, often used to determine plant species responses to environment and phenological plasticity. The effects of water supply and phenological stage were expected, with no acclimation after long-term Coffea arabica L. cultivation under e[CO2]. The aim of the study was to determine variations in parameters of A/PAR curves in coffee leaves over a tree vertical profile after long-term cultivation under free-air-CO2-enrichment (FACE) system. The p arameters of A/PAR curves in C. arabica were estimated after five-years cultivation in FACE under two CO2 conditions, actual (a[CO2], ~390?L CO2 L-1) and e[CO2] (~590?L CO2 L-1), in two water regimes (rainfed and irrigation). The A/PAR curves were estimated in two phenological stages (grain formation - February 2016 and fruit maturation - May 2016). The A/PAR responses were determined by varying photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) from 1117 to 0 ?mol photons m?2 s?1 in four 50 cm-thick layers of vertical plant profile. The maximum photosynthesis (Amax), dark respiration (Rd), apparent quantum efficiency (?), and light compensation point (?) generally increased under e[CO2] compared to a[CO2], showing higher values during grain formation than during fruit maturation (Figure 1). The Rd and ? followed the progressive increase by layers only during the grain formation (Figures 1C and 1E). Continuation in e[CO2] stimulation indicated that leaf photosynthesis acclimation did not occur after five-years coffee cultivation under FACE. The lack of progressive increase in Amax, ? and ? over vertical profile indicates leaf plasticity to light availability, especially considering the high Amax of the two lowest layers. The compensation effects of e[CO2] to low water availability were observed in all A/PAR responses.
495. M. Rakocevic, R. V. Ribeiro, P. E. Ribeiro Marchiori, H. F. Filizola, and E. R. Batista, “Structural and Functional Changes in Coffee Trees after 4 Years under Free Air CO2 Enrichment,” Annals of Botany, vol. 121, no. 5, pp. 1065–1078, Apr. 2018. doi: 10.1093/aob/mcy011. Abstract
     Climate forecasts suggest that [CO2] in the atmosphere will continue to increase. Structural and ecophysiological responses to elevated air [CO2] (e[CO2]) in tree species are contradictory due to species-dependent responses and relatively short-term experiments. It was hypothesized that long-term exposure (4 year) to e[CO2] would change canopy structure and function of Coffea arabica trees.Coffee plants were grown in a FACE (free air CO2 enrichment) facility under two air [CO2]: actual and elevated (actual + approx. 200 μL CO2 L–1). Plants were codified following the VPlants methodology to obtain coffee mock-ups. Plant canopies were separated into three 50 cm thick layers over a vertical profile to evaluate their structure and photosynthesis, using functional–structural plant modelling.Leaf area was strongly reduced on the bottom and upper canopy layers, and increased soil carbon concentration suggested changes in carbon partitioning of coffee trees under e[CO2]. Increased air [CO2] stimulated stomatal conductance and leaf photosynthesis at the middle and upper canopy layers, increasing water-use efficiency. Under e[CO2], plants showed reduced diameter of the second-order axes and higher investment in the youngest third to fifth-order axes.The responses of Arabica coffee grown under long-term exposure to e[CO2] integrated structural and functional modifications, which balanced leaf area loss through improvements in leaf and whole-plant photosynthesis.
496. J. C. Ramalho et al., “Cold Impact and Acclimation Response of Coffea Spp. Plants,” Theoretical and Experimental Plant Physiology, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 5–18, Mar. 2014. doi: 10.1007/s40626-014-0001-7. Abstract
     Climate changes implicate an increase in climate instability and the occurrence of extreme temperature in the environment. In this context, the differential triggering of cold tolerance mechanisms among coffee plants, highlighting the existence of important genetic variability, is of up most importance to be exploited in genotype screening and breeding programs. This review deals with the identification and triggering of acclimation mechanisms that shield key functions and structures of photosynthesis, with a particular emphasis on experiments under environmental controlled conditions. These mechanisms allow plants to perform metabolic and structural adjustments, particularly under conditions of a gradual cold exposure, simulating the effects happening in the field under cold periods. Detailed attention is given to the strengthening of the antioxidative system and to the dynamics of the lipid matrix components in chloroplast membranes, since they were found to constitute crucial traits to an effective long-term acclimation and, therefore, to guarantee the economic sustainability of this important tropical cash crop, particularly in cultivation areas prone to the occurrence of low positive temperatures.
497. J. C. Ramalho et al., “Maintenance of Respiration Activity and Sugar Balance May Account for Chilling Tolerance in Coffea Sp.,” in XII Congresso Latino-Americano de Fisiologia Vegetal, 2010, p. 5. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286376474_Maintenance_of_respiration_activity_and_sugar_balance_account_for_chilling_tolerance_in_Coffea_sp. Abstract
     Low temperature is a major limiting factor for plant metabolism and is often associated to a reduction in crop production, especially in tropical and sub-tropical plants. Low-positive temperatures (chilling) can impair cell metabolism, with strong impacts on membranes and respiratory and photosynthetic machinery. Nevertheless, the exposure to low-positive temperatures during a rather long period may promote the acclimation of plants through a wide range of potential mechanisms, involving complex morphological, metabolic and ultrastructural changes (Hällgreen and Öquist, 1990; Kratsch and Wise, 2000). In fact, some acclimation is possible even in chilling-sensitive plants (Krause, 1994). The maintenance of the production and consumption of sugars, as well as the stabilization of its levels are of upmost importance to cold tolerance (Byrd et al., 1995; Leegood, 1995; Allen and Ort, 2001; Ramalho et al., 2003). In fact, despite some transient changes and imbalances, in the long-term, the restoration of the balance between photosynthesis, carbon metabolism and translocation is essential for a lower cold sensitivity (Hurry et al., 1998). Low temperature stress is of particular importance for coffee crop, since it is known that Coffea arabica and C. canephora species (responsible for ca. 99% of world coffee production) are sensitive to low non-freezing temperatures that often occur in production areas, with a depressing effect on growth, photosynthetic performance and yields (Bauer et al., 1985; Da Matta et al., 1997). Searching for important insights concerning the acclimation ability of Coffea sp., the impact of cold on sugar contents and respiration enzymes was analysed.
498. J. C. Ramalho, T. L. Pons, H. W. Groeneveld, and M. A. Nunes, “Photosynthetic Responses of Coffea Arabica Leaves to a Short-Term High Light Exposure in Relation to N Availability,” Physiologia Plantarum, vol. 101, no. 1, pp. 229–239, 1997. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-3054.1997.tb01841.x. Abstract
     It is known that the coffee (Coffea arabica L.) plant which is originally from shade habitats would have a limited ability to grow under full sun. Previous work has shown that nitrogen fertilisation can reduce the leaf damage when the plants are exposed to high light intensities during several days. In the present work we aimed to study the effects of the high irradiance during the first hours and evaluate the positive contribution of nitrogen fertilisation in the case of short-term exposure to strong light. Young plants (1.5–2 years old) grown in 1.5 kg of a mixed soil were supplemented with a nutrient solution containing 15 mM nitrogen in the form of NH4NO3, every 7 days (2N treatment), 15 days (1N treatment) and 45 days (0N treatment). Top mature leaves were exposed to a photosynthetic photon flux density of 1 500 μmol m−2 s−1 for a maximal period of 8 h, and changes in photosynthesis and pigment composition were monitored along the period of high light exposure. Photosynthetic capacity, leaf conductance to water vapour, electron transport capacity and maximum carboxylation activity, as well as some leaf fluorescence parameters (minimal fluorescence, photochemical efficiency of PSII and quantum yield of photosynthetic electron transport) were reduced by the stress, with a generally stronger impact observed in the 0N plants. The photochemical quenching was affected only in the 0N plants, while the non-photochemical quenching increased in 2N plants but decreased in the 0N ones. The results showed that 2N plants presented a better initial status of the photosynthetic parameters and of the content of photoprotective pigments. Those plants showed ability to trigger some protective mechanisms, as observed by the tendency to increase the xanthophyll pool content, specially in zeaxanthin and in non-photochemical quenching. Also, protein content presented a tendency to increase after 1.5 h, which was maintained until the end of the high light period. We conclude that nitrogen availability is a key factor in the acclimation process to high light.
499. J. C. Ramalho, T. L. Pons, H. W. Groeneveld, H. G. Azinheira, and M. A. Nunes, “Photosynthetic Acclimation to High Light Conditions in Mature Leaves of Coffea Arabica L.: Role of Xanthophylls, Quenching Mechanisms and Nitrogen Nutrition,” Functional Plant Biology, vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 43–51, 2000. doi: 10.1071/pp99013. Abstract
     Young coffee plants (Coffea arabica L. cv. Catuaí), originally from a shaded habitat, were separated in three groups to be grown under different levels of N fertilization: 0.3 mmol N supplements were given to the soil every 7 days (high N treatment, 2N), every 15 days (medium N treatment, 1N) and every 45 days (low N treatment, 0N). These plants were later exposed to a high sunlight irradiance (noon PPFD up to 1500 µmol m–2 s–1 ) for a period of 12 or 15 days. Among others, the values of electron trans-port capacity, maximum carboxylation activity, photosynthetic capacity (Amax) and several fluorescence parameters (Fv/Fm, Fv´/Fm´, qP, &phis;e) first showed a reduction (until the 4th–7th day) in all N treatments, followed by an N-dependent recovery. The 2N plants were less affected in the first few days and, at the end of the stress period, showed a better recovery for most of the studied parameters and the highest increase in the saturating PPFD for net photosynthesis and A max . The present work shows that the ability to acclimate displayed by the mature leaves of 2N plants was accompanied by an increase in energy dis-sipation mechanisms. These include an increase in the ‘high energy’ quenching and, mostly, the presence of higher contents of some xanthophylls (zeaxanthin and lutein) and carotenes, which helped to decrease the energetic overcharge in the photosystems. Pigment changes in mature leaves suggest that N can promote specific mechanisms of acclimation others than those that might be expected from a preferential partition of the element N into photosynthetic components.
500. J. C. Ramalho et al., “Sustained Photosynthetic Performance of Coffea Spp. under Long-Term Enhanced [CO2],” PLOS ONE, vol. 8, no. 12, p. e82712, Dec. 2013. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0082712. Abstract
     Coffee is one of the world’s most traded agricultural products. Modeling studies have predicted that climate change will have a strong impact on the suitability of current cultivation areas, but these studies have not anticipated possible mitigating effects of the elevated atmospheric [CO2] because no information exists for the coffee plant. Potted plants from two genotypes of Coffea arabica and one of C. canephora were grown under controlled conditions of irradiance (800 μmol m-2 s-1), RH (75%) and 380 or 700 μL CO2 L-1 for 1 year, without water, nutrient or root development restrictions. In all genotypes, the high [CO2] treatment promoted opposite trends for stomatal density and size, which decreased and increased, respectively. Regardless of the genotype or the growth [CO2], the net rate of CO2 assimilation increased (34-49%) when measured at 700 than at 380 μL CO2 L-1. This result, together with the almost unchanged stomatal conductance, led to an instantaneous water use efficiency increase. The results also showed a reinforcement of photosynthetic (and respiratory) components, namely thylakoid electron transport and the activities of RuBisCo, ribulose 5-phosphate kinase, malate dehydrogenase and pyruvate kinase, what may have contributed to the enhancements in the maximum rates of electron transport, carboxylation and photosynthetic capacity under elevated [CO2], although these responses were genotype dependent. The photosystem II efficiency, energy driven to photochemical events, non-structural carbohydrates, photosynthetic pigment and membrane permeability did not respond to [CO2] supply. Some alterations in total fatty acid content and the unsaturation level of the chloroplast membranes were noted but, apparently, did not affect photosynthetic functioning. Despite some differences among the genotypes, no clear species-dependent responses to elevated [CO2] were observed. Overall, as no apparent sign of photosynthetic down-regulation was found, our data suggest that Coffea spp. plants may successfully cope with high [CO2] under the present experimental conditions.
501. S. Ramanathan et al., “Chapter 5 - Kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa Korth.): A Description on the Ethnobotany, Alkaloid Chemistry, and Neuropharmacology,” in Studies in Natural Products Chemistry, vol. 69, Atta-ur-Rahman, Ed. Elsevier, 2021, pp. 195–225. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-819487-4.00003-3. Abstract
     Mitragyna speciosa (kratom), a Southeast Asian plant belonging to the Mitragyna genus, has a long history of traditional uses. There are several therapeutic properties attributed to kratom such as energy booster, pain reliever, mood enhancer, remedy for various ailments, and management of opiate addiction. In recent years, kratom leaves and derivatized botanical products (e.g., extracts, solutions) are being sold as dietary supplements and marketed worldwide via the internet for the management of pain, anxiety, and depression. Indole and oxindole alkaloids are the major chemical constituents that are most likely implicated in the pharmacological effects of kratom products. In Western countries, other than in Southeast Asia, several issues have been alarming, such as adulteration, substitution, and spiking the plant material with neuropharmacological and illicit substances. This chapter provides a summary of the ethnobotany and alkaloid chemistry of kratom including plant biosynthesis and chemical synthesis of alkaloid molecules. Recent developments in the alkaloid detection methods for kratom profiling and authentication of kratom products are also discussed in this chapter. Additionally, this chapter discusses a compilation of the available information from the literature related to the CNS exposure and interaction of major kratom alkaloids.
502. F. N. Ramos, J. José, V. N. Solferini, and F. A. M. Santos, “Quality of Seeds Produced by Psychotria Tenuinervis (Rubiaceae): Distance from Anthropogenic and Natural Edges of Atlantic Forest Fragment,” Biochemical Genetics, vol. 45, no. 5, pp. 441–458, Jun. 2007. doi: 10.1007/s10528-007-9087-9. Abstract
     The aim of this study was to investigate whether there were differences in the genetic variability and rate and velocity of the seed germination produced by Psychotria tenuinervis located at anthropogenic edges, natural edges, and in the forest interior. The populations of P. tenuinervis showed no differences in genetic variability or structure among the three habitats. There was, however, an indication of inbreeding, which was significantly higher in natural edges than in anthropogenic edges and the forest interior. Within-habitat variation was considerable, but there were no differences in seed mass or rate and velocity of germination among the three habitats. These results suggest that seed characteristics were not influenced by the genetic pattern of P. tenuinervis and that other characteristics of the forest fragment, such as gaps, edge age, and type of matrix exert more influence on seed mass and germination than the distance from the edges.
503. V. Rani et al., “Evidence for New Nuclear and Mitochondrial Genome Organizations among High-Frequency Somatic Embryogenesis-Derived Plants of Allotetraploid Coffea Arabica L.(Rubiaceae),” Plant Cell Reports, vol. 19, no. 10, pp. 1013–1020, 2000. doi: 10.1007/s002990000228. Abstract
     The most important commercial species of coffee, Coffea arabica, which produces 73% of the world’s coffee crop and almost all of the coffee in Latin America, is the only tetraploid (allotetraploid, 2n=4x=44) species known in the genus. High-frequency somatic embryogenesis, plant regeneration and plant recovery were achieved from leaf explants of a mature, elite plant of C. arabica cv. Cauvery (S-4347) using a two-step culture method. To assess the genetic integrity of the nuclear, mitochondrial and chloroplast genomes among the hardened regenerants, we employed multiple DNA markers (RFLP, RAPD, ISSR) for sampling various regions of the genome. Although the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes of the mother plant and five ramets derived from the mother ortet were similar in organization, this was not so in the somatic embryo-derived plants where both nuclear and mitochondrial genomes changed in different, characteristic ways and produced novel genome organizations. A total of 480 genetic loci, based on the data obtained from a total of 16 nuclear, mitochondrial and chloroplast gene probes, in combination with nine restriction enzyme digests, 38 RAPD and 17 SSR primers, were scored in 27 somatic embryo-derived plants and the single control. Among these, 44 loci were observed to be polymorphic. A relatively low level of polymorphism (4.36%) was found in the nuclear genome, while polymorphism in the mitochondrial genome (41%) was much higher. No polymorphism was detected in the chloroplast genome. The polymorphism in the mitochondrial genome was found in only 4 plants. Such selective polymorphism was not true for the nuclear genome. Thus, this in-depth and comprehensive study demonstrates, for the first time, the presence of subtle genetic variability and novel genome organizations in the commercially well-established somatic embryogenesis-derived plants of this important coffee species.
504. S. Ratanamarno and S. Surbkar, “Caffeine and Catechins in Fresh Coffee Leaf (Coffea Arabica) and Coffee Leaf Tea,” Maejo International Journal of Science and Technology, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 211–218, Sep. 2017. http://www.mijst.mju.ac.th/vol11/211-218.pdf. Abstract
     Caffeine and some catechins in coffee leaves were preliminarily investigated. To make coffee leaf tea, coffee leaves were roasted for 6 min. at 100±10°C and then rolled by hand. Young leaves were roasted again at 100±10°C for 1 hr and 15 min. or until the leaves were dry and crispy. For mature leaves, they were roasted further for 1 hr without rolling. To make fermented coffee leaf tea, both fresh young and mature leaves were crumbled and fermented for 8 hr and then roasted. Caffeine and catechins were determined by HPLC. The following results were obtained for fresh coffee leaves: caffeine, 1.8-3.2 mg/g; epigallocatechin gallate, 5.5-16.4 mg/g; epicatechin gallate, 0.26-0.48 mg/g; epicatechin, 0.27-0.40 mg/g; and catechin, 0.05-0.18 mg/g. The amounts of caffeine and catechins were found to be higher in young leaves than in mature leaves. For coffee leaf tea, a steeping time of at least 5 min. was suggested. It was also found that most of the phenolics were lower in fermented leaves than in non-fermented leaves. © 2017 by Maejo University, San Sai, Chiang Mai, 50290 Thailand.
505. S. G. Razafimandimbison, C. M. Taylor, N. Wikström, T. Pailler, A. Khodabandeh, and B. Bremer, “Phylogeny and Generic Limits in the Sister Tribes Psychotrieae and Palicoureeae (Rubiaceae): Evolution of Schizocarps in Psychotria and Origins of Bacterial Leaf Nodules of the Malagasy Species,” American Journal of Botany, vol. 101, no. 7, pp. 1102–1126, 2014. doi: 10.3732/ajb.1400076. Abstract
     • Premise of the study: The pantropical, species-rich Psychotrieae and Palicoureeae are sister tribes of mostly drupe-bearing and nonbacterial leaf-nodulating species with problematic generic limits. This problem is more complicated in Psychotrieae due to the paraphyly of the genus Psychotria, the lack of diagnostic characters for some major lineages, and the poor sampling from some biodiversity hotspots. Schizocarps and bacterial leaf nodules have been used for recognizing formal groups in Psychotrieae, but their evolution and taxonomic value have not been studied using a robust phylogeny of the tribe. • Methods: We analyzed 287 samples from the entire ranges of the tribes, with particular emphasis on the Western Indian Ocean region, with the Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo method. • Key results: All allied Psychotria genera investigated are nested within a paraphyletic Psychotria. Schizocarps evolved independently two times within Psychotria, and one reversal back to the drupaceous condition is inferred. The Malagasy leaf-nodulated Psychotrieae (except Apomuria bullata) and the Comorian non-leaf-nodulated Psychotria conocarpa are nested within the (African) leaf-nodulated clade. Within Palicoureeae, Chassalia is paraphyletic with respect to Geophila sensu stricto, and the Malagasy Geophila gerrardii and the African Hymenocoleus are closely related. • Conclusions: A widely circumscribed Psychotria encompassing the entire Psychotrieae is supported. Within Psychotria, two separate origins of schizocarps from drupes, one reversal back to the drupaceous condition, and two independent origins of the Malagasy leaf-nodulated species are inferred. A new genus Puffia is described to accommodate Geophila gerrardii, and a narrow circumscription of Chassalia is adopted. Thirty-two new combinations, two lectotypifications, and 25 new names are presented.
506. N. H. Z. A. Razak, fazila binti zakaria, M. B. bin A. Rahman, and S. E. Ashari, “Optimization of Extraction Yield and Phytochemical Characterization of Crude Methanolic Extract and Its Fractions of Mitragyna Speciosa Leaves.” Dec-2021. doi: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-52121/v1. Abstract
     In this study, Response surface methodology (RSM) was applied to optimize the yield of crude methanolic extract of Mitragyna speciosa leaves using Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE). The crude methanolic extract and its fractions were quantified in terms of total phenolic content and total flavonoid content, along with characterized using Fourier-transform infrared and Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. The results showed the maximum yield of 49.72% at the optimal conditions (temperature, 34 °C; time, 25 min; and volume of solvent, 166 mL). The recovery crude methanolic extract for TPC and TFC were 137.3 ± 15.7 mg GAE/g and 90.3 ± 15.3 mg RE/g, respectively.&nbsp;
507. L. S. D. Reis, E. F. Araújo, D. Dias, C. Sediyama, and R. C. Meireles, “LERCAFE: New Test to Estimate the Germination of the Coffee Tree Seeds (Coffea Arabica L.),” 2010. doi: 10.1590/S0101-31222010000100001. Abstract
     The use of the LERCAFE test in the fast evaluation of the seeds of coffee, has a low cost and an easy execution and interpretation, allowing estimate accurately and with quickness the potential of germination of the coffee tree seeds, besides presenting non destructive characteristics, favoring the evaluation of seedlings deriving from the tested seeds. With the objective of using the hypochlorite of sodium in the development of a new test to evaluate quickly the quality of the coffee tree seeds, through the estimate of the germination, the present work was accomplished being used four portions of coffee tree seeds (Coffea arabica L.) cv. IAC Catuai 44 and four portions of cv. Rubi. The percentage of germination of the seeds was estimated by the developed test, denominated LERCAFE, in two methodologies. In the method 1, the seeds had its parchment removed manually and soon after they were immersed in solution of hypochlorite of sodium to 2,5%, where they stayed for 3 hours. After that, the seeds were washed and later evaluated visually. In the method 2, the seeds with parchment were immersed in hypochlorite of sodium to 5,0% for a period of 6 hours and the seeds that were submitted to this method were washed and immersed in distilled water by 40 minutes and later appraised. Like this, in the visual evaluation of the seeds, were considered non-germinated the seeds that presented formation of greenish coloration in the embryonic area and the seeds that didn’t present visible embryo; the quality of the portions was also characterized by the germination test. The two methods of the LERCAFE test presented increase correlations with the germination test. The use of the LERCAFE test in the fast evaluation of the seeds of coffee, has a low cost and an easy execution and interpretation, allowing estimate accurately and with quickness the potential of germination of the coffee tree seeds, besides presenting non destructive characteristics, favoring the evaluation of seedlings deriving from the tested seeds.
508. M. Y. Rendón, P. L. Gratão, T. J. G. Salva, R. A. Azevedo, and N. Bragagnolo, “Antioxidant Enzyme Activity and Hydrogen Peroxide Content during the Drying of Arabica Coffee Beans,” European Food Research and Technology, vol. 236, no. 5, pp. 753–758, May 2013. doi: 10.1007/s00217-013-1933-x.
509. M. de L. Resende, “Alterações fisiológicas e bioquímicas durante a germinação de sementes de café (Coffea arabica L.) CV. Rubi,” PhD thesis, Universidade Federal de Lavras, Lavras, Minas Gerais, Brasil, 2006. http://www.sbicafe.ufv.br/handle/123456789/6660. Abstract
     Coffee propagation is performed through seedlings from seeds. However, germination in coffee seed is slow and uneven. Therefore, this work had the objective of studding the physiological aspects of seed germination in Coffea arabica cv. Rubi. There were evaluated effect of light, gibberellins and paclobutrazol (inhibitor of gibberellins biosynthesis) during seed germination. Seeds after treatment with light, gibberellins and paclobutrazol were subjected to electrophoresis analysis of proteins resistant to heat( LEA proteins) and the enzymes (catalase, superoxide dismutase and peroxidase), determination of sugar content (sucrose, mannose, glucose, fructose, galactose, raffinose and staquiose), the activity of endo-b-mannanase, the enzyme polyphenoloxidase and percentage of polyphenols in each time of imbibition. The speed of seed germination was inhibited in seeds treated with gibberellins. The paclobutrazol decreased speed of seed germination did not decrease the effect of light. Higher speed of germination was observed under absence of light. Regarding the patterns of isoenzymes and proteins there were changes during seed germination. Sucrose and mannose act during seed germination. The enzyme end-b-mannanase increased its activity in seeds imbibed under the presence of light and gibberellins. The enzyme polyphenoloxidase decreased its activity whereas polyphenols increased during germination.
510. M. de L. Resende, T. T. de A. Silva, R. M. Guimarães, and A. A. da Silva, “Influence of Light and Gibberellin on the Germination Velocity of Coffee Seeds (Coffea Arabica L.).,” Coffee Science, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 149–154, 2009. doi: 10.25186/CS.V4I2.179. Abstract
     There are various factors that interfere with seed germination. In this research the effect of light, gibberellins and paclobutrazol in coffee seed germination were evaluated. Seeds of coffee (Coffea arabica L.) from cultivar Rubi harvested at the developmental stage known as cherry were dried until 12% of water content. The first trial was performed in factorial design (2x2), the condtions being two (light and dark), presence and absence of gibberellins. The substrate was imbibed with 20 ml of GA3 (100 mM) and the control treatment with distillated water. The second trial was performed in factorial design (4x2x3), with four concentrations of paclobutrazol (0; 0,1;1,0; and 10 mM), two conditions (light and dark) and three storage conditions (0, 4 and 8 months). The substrate was imbibed with 20 mL of paclobutrazol and the control treatment with distillated water. Both trials were performed in four replications of fifty seeds. Seed sowing was performed in gerbox tray with two blotting papers and one germitest paper. The dark condition was created by wrapping the gerbox with an aluminum foil. The germiantion velocity rate, germination at thirty days and the time to 50% root protrusion were evaluated. The gibberellin treatment in seed coffee decreases the germination velocity rate and percentage of germination. The gibberellin inhibitor decreases the gemination velocity rate but it did not reduce the effect of light. High values of germination velocity rate were observed in dark.
511. J. C. de Rezende, “Embriogênese Somática Indireta Em Clones Elite de Coffea Arabica L.,” PhD thesis, Universidade Federal de Lavras, Lavras, Minas Gerais, Brasil, 2008. http://www.sbicafe.ufv.br/bitstream/handle/123456789/6654/Tese_Juliana%20Costa%20de%20Rezende.pdf. Abstract
     This work was carried out with the objective of obtaining high effectiveness in indirect somatic embryogenesis in foliar explants of Coffea arabica elite clones. The elite clones embryogenic calli yield potential was evaluated in different media as well as in 2,4-D and 2-iP variations in both primary and secondary media described by Teixeira et al (2004). For the calli multiplication the treatments constituted of two media (stage two medium described by Albarran et al, 2004, and multiplication medium described by Teixeira et al, 2004) and two cultivation systems (solid and liquid). Evaluations were carried out 21, 42 and 63 days after the experiment has been installed, by calli weighing. After the somatic embryos transformation the effect of both IBA and BAP in growth medium (PRM) described by Teixeira et al (2004) was evaluated. Plants produced through somatic embryogenesis were compared, under field conditions, with those originated from seeds. Results show that somatic embryos productions depend on the genotype. Calli induction depends on both the time explants were collected and the 2-iP and 2,4-D relationship. The solid system was more effective in the embryogenic calli multiplication of the clone studied. Taking into account the percentage of both normal and rooted plantlets as well as the aerial part length average values no IBA or BAP addition is needed, in the protocol used, to convert somatic embryos into plantlets. The length of lateral branches of the plants originated from somatic embryogenesis was longer when compared to those originated from seeds. As to the other characteristics evaluated no significant difference was found. No change in the fenotype of plants originated from somatic embryogenesis was noticed by visual inspection. Therefore, the Coffea arabica plants originated from somatic embryogenesis were found to behave similarly to those originated from seeds.
512. J. Riba, P. Anderer, F. Jané, B. Saletu, and M. J. Barbanoj, “Effects of the South American Psychoactive Beverage Ayahuasca on Regional Brain Electrical Activity in Humans: A Functional Neuroimaging Study Using Low-Resolution Electromagnetic Tomography,” Neuropsychobiology, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 89–101, Jun. 2004. doi: 10.1159/000077946. Abstract
     Ayahuasca, a South American psychotropic plant tea obtained from Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis, combines monoamine oxidase-inhibiting β-carboline alkaloids with N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), a psychedelic agent showing 5-HT2A agonist activity. In a clinical research setting, ayahuasca has demonstrated a combined stimulatory and psychedelic effect profile, as measured by subjective effect self-assessment instruments and dose-dependent changes in spontaneous brain electrical activity, which parallel the time course of subjective effects. In the present study, the spatial distribution of ayahuasca-induced changes in brain electrical activity was investigated by means of low-resolution electromagnetic tomography (LORETA). Electroencephalography recordings were obtained from 18 volunteers after the administration of a dose of encapsulated freeze-dried ayahuasca containing 0.85 mg DMT/kg body weight and placebo. The intracerebral power density distribution was computed with LORETA from spectrally analyzed data, and subjective effects were measured by means of the Hallucinogen Rating Scale (HRS). Statistically significant differences compared to placebo were observed for LORETA power 60 and 90 min after dosing, together with increases in all six scales of the HRS. Ayahuasca decreased power density in the alpha-2, delta, theta and beta-1 frequency bands. Power decreases in the delta, alpha-2 and beta-1 bands were found predominantly over the temporo-parieto-occipital junction, whereas theta power was reduced in the temporomedial cortex and in frontomedial regions. The present results suggest the involvement of unimodal and heteromodal association cortex and limbic structures in the psychological effects elicited by ayahuasca.
513. J. Riba, E. H. McIlhenny, M. Valle, J. C. Bouso, and S. A. Barker, “Metabolism and Disposition of N,N-Dimethyltryptamine and Harmala Alkaloids after Oral Administration of Ayahuasca,” Drug Testing and Analysis, vol. 4, no. 7-8, pp. 610–616, 2012. doi: 10.1002/dta.1344. Abstract
     Ayahuasca is an Amazonian psychotropic plant tea obtained from Banisteriopsis caapi, which contains β-carboline alkaloids, chiefly harmine, harmaline and tetrahydroharmine. The tea usually incorporates the leaves of Psychotria viridis or Diplopterys cabrerana, which are rich in N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), a psychedelic 5-HT2A/1A/2C agonist. The β-carbolines reversibly inhibit monoamine-oxidase (MAO), effectively preventing oxidative deamination of the orally labile DMT and allowing its absorption and access to the central nervous system. Despite increased use of the tea worldwide, the metabolism and excretion of DMT and the β-carbolines has not been studied systematically in humans following ingestion of ayahuasca. In the present work, we used an analytical method involving high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)/electrospray ionization (ESI)/selected reaction monitoring (SRM)/tandem mass spectrometry(MS/MS) to characterize the metabolism and disposition of ayahuasca alkaloids in humans. Twenty-four-hour urine samples were obtained from 10 healthy male volunteers following administration of an oral dose of encapsulated freeze-dried ayahuasca (1.0 mg DMT/kg body weight). Results showed that less than 1% of the administered DMT dose was excreted unchanged. Around 50% was recovered as indole-3-acetic acid but also as DMT-N-oxide (10%) and other MAO-independent compounds. Recovery of DMT plus metabolites reached 68%. Harmol, harmalol, and tetrahydroharmol conjugates were abundant in urine. However, recoveries of each harmala alkaloid plus its O-demethylated metabolite varied greatly between 9 and 65%. The present results show the existence in humans of alternative metabolic routes for DMT other than biotransformation by MAO. Also that O-demethylation plus conjugation is an important but probably not the only metabolic route for the harmala alkaloids in humans. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
514. J. E. da S. Ribeiro, “Allometric Equations to Estimate the Leaf Area of Psychotria Colorata (Willd. Ex Schult.) Müll.Arg.,” 2021. doi: 10.14393/BJ-v37n0a2021-53711.
515. V. J. Ribeiro, F. V. Andrade, R. R. Passos, E. Sa Mendonca, L. L. da Silva, and A. F. Sartori, “Slow-Release Stabilized Nitrogen Fertilizers on Initial Development and Nutrition of Coffee Plants (’Coffea Arabica’ L.),” Australian Journal of Crop Science, Apr. 2016. https://search.informit.org/doi/abs/10.3316/informit.135516044186485. Abstract
     Currently there is interest in aggregating technology to fertilizers in order to increase their efficiency. A good example is the use of slow and steady release nitrogen fertilizers. This study was...
516. I. Ridwan, A. Ala, I. T, Rafiuddin, M. F. BDR, and F. Haring, “Good Agriculture Practice (GAP) of Arabica Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.): Implementation on the Smallholder Estate in Enrekang Regency,” IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, vol. 575, p. 012113, Oct. 2020. doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/575/1/012113. Abstract
     This study aims to evaluate and provide an overview of farmers’ knowledge and understanding on the Good Agriculture Practice (GAP) of Arabica coffee cultivation and its implementation level on the smallholder estate in Enrekang Regency. The research was conducted in three districts of coffee plantation centre from December 2017 to January 2018. The research was carried out in the form of surveys including interviews, observations, and literature studies. A total of 30 respondents were selected using a purposive sampling method in addition to several key respondents from stakeholders and experts. Criteria for the selection was based on the involvement of the farmers in a GAP field schools or not. A proportional ratio of farmers involved in program and not involved were set for the survey. Data were analysed descriptively and quantitatively using comparative analysis with SPSS Version 16 to determine the difference in production of two groups of farmers. The results show that the overall implementation level of GAP by the smallholder farmers of Arabica coffee in Enrekang Regency is 54%. Highest level of GAP implementation was on post-harvest aspect (77%), followed by the harvest aspect (61%). The smallholder coffee farmers had the lowest GAP level on in cultivation aspect of 24%. Farmers that did not implement the GAP had a significantly lower production compared to the farmers who have participated in GAP field schools.
517. L. Rivier and J.-E. Lindgren, “‘Ayahuasca,’ the South American Hallucinogenic Drink: An Ethnobotanical and Chemical Investigation,” Economic Botany, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 101–129, Apr. 1972. doi: 10.1007/BF02860772. Abstract
     The Sharanahua and Culina, small Indian tribes located in the southwestern Amazon basin, use a hallucinogenic drink for medicinal and social purposes. This decoction, called “Ayahuasca” in Peru, is prepared from Banisteriopsis Caapi stems and Psychotria sp. leaves. These plants have been botanically identified on the basis of voucher herbarium specimens and investigated for alkaloid content by means of a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry technique. A list of other occasional plant admixtures is given. Harmine, Harmaline, Tetrahydroharmine, Harmol and 6-Methoxytryptamine have been found in Banisteriopsis Caapi. Dimethyltryptamine, Monomethyltryptamine and 2-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline have been found in Psychotria viridis and Psychotria carthaginensis. Harmine, Harmaline, Tetrahydroharmine and Dimethyltryptamine have been found in the drink. Quantitative calculations show the amount of each alkaloid administered in the Ayahuasca drink.
518. F. A. Rodrigues, V. Carré-Missio, G. N. Jham, M. Berhow, and D. A. Schurt, “Chlorogenic Acid Levels in Leaves of Coffee Plants Supplied with Silicon and Infected by Hemileia Vastatrix,” Tropical Plant Pathology, vol. 36, pp. 404–408, Dec. 2011. doi: 10.1590/S1982-56762011000600010. Abstract
     Rust, caused by Hemileia vastatrix, is the main disease that decreases coffee production in Brazil. New and enhanced methods to reduce rust intensity that can be integrated with modern genetic and chemical approaches need to be investigated. Considering that many plant species supplied with silicon (Si) show increased resistance to several pathogens, this study examined the possible effect of this element in increasing chlorogenic acid (CA) concentrations in coffee leaves and, consequently, increasing the level of resistance to rust. Plants (cv. "Catuaí Vermelho IAC 44") were inoculated with H. vastatrix after growing for 35 days in a hydroponic culture amended with 0 (-Si) or 2 (+Si) mM Si. Concentration of Si in leaf tissues was of 0.36 and 0.42 dag/kg for -Si and +Si treatments, respectively, but without a statistically significant difference. The area under rust progress curve was 154.5 and 119.4 for -Si and +Si treatments, respectively, but without significant statistical difference. For non-inoculated plants, the concentrations of total CA and caffeoyl-quinic acid (CQA)compounds (diCQA) were similar between -Si and +Si treatments. Even though there was an increase of 236.4 and 257.1%, respectively, for total CA and diCQA for +Si when compared to -Si treatment at 30 days after inoculation with H. vastatrix, reduction on rust severity was not obtained once the fungus had already colonized the leaf tissues. Therefore, regardless of the increase in the concentrations of chlorogenic acid on leaves, coffee resistance to H. vastatrix infection was not potentialized by Si.
519. W. P. Rodrigues, “Effect of High Temperatures and CO2 Concentration on Physiological, Biochemical and Growth Traits in Coffea Sp.: Aspects Related to the Single Leaf and Whole Canopy,” Feb. 2017. http://www.sbicafe.ufv.br/handle/123456789/12225. Abstract
     The tropical coffee crop has been predicted to be threatened by future climate changes and global warming. However, the real biological effects of such changes remained unknown at both leaf and whole-canopy level. Therefore, we designed a set of experiments in Coffea sp. under both controlled and non-controlled (seasonal fluctuations) conditions. The experiments were related to single and combined effects of the increase in the atmospheric CO2 concentration and temperature on photosynthesis at leaf–scale, as well as related to impacts of rising temperatures on gas exchanges at whole-canopy scale. The first experiment aimed at to evaluate changes at stomatal and photochemical levels in Coffea arabica (cv. Catuaí Amarelo 65) and C. canephora (cv. Emcapa 8111 Clone 02) under mild temperature (spring) and high temperature (summer) exposure. Potted plants were maintained in a greenhouse, watered to field capacity and subject to the natural variations of light, temperature and relative humidity (Chapter 1). In the second experiment, cropped genotypes of C. arabica L. (cv. Icatú and IPR108) and C. canephora cv. Conilon Clone 153 (CL153) were grown for ca. 10 months at 25/20 °C (day/night) and 380 or 700 μL CO2 L-1 . After that they were subjected to a gradual temperature increase (0.5 °C day -1 ) up to 42/34 °C. Leaf impacts related to stomatal traits, gas exchanges, C-isotope composition, chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters, thylakoid electron transport rates and enzyme activities were assessed at 25/20, 31/25, 37/30 and 42/34 °C (Chapter 2). The third experiment evaluated whole-canopy gas exchanges on genotypes from the two main coffee producing species (C.arabica cv. Catuaí Amarelo 65 and C. canephora cv. Emcapa 8111 Clone 02) during two different seasons varying in temperature. Six plants with ca. 1-year-old of each species were grown in a greenhouse and kept well-watered. Data were continuously collected for 10 days during spring (September 2014 - moderate temperature) and summer (February 2015 -high temperature) and micrometeorological variables were monitored inside the greenhouse (Chapter 3). Overall, our results showed under controlled conditions, both coffee genotypes were tolerant up to 37/30 oC, whereas declines in photosynthetic rates were observed at 42/34 oC mainly associated with higher heat sensibility of the photosynthetic enzymes, namely ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO) and ribulose 5-phosphate kinase (RuB5PK). However, enhanced [CO2] strongly alleviated the impacts of high temperatures, particularly at 42/34oC, modifying the response of coffee plants to supra-optimal temperatures. Additionally, coffee genotypes grown under elevated [CO2] did not show an acclimation of photosynthesis so that photosynthetic rates and photochemical and biochemical activities were all improved at all temperatures. On the other hand, under a fluctuating environment conditions, supra-optimal temperatures lead to increases in air DPV affecting both leaf and whole-canopy photosynthetic rates in C. arabica plants. Decreases in photosynthetic rates in this specie during summer were linked to declines in both stomatal and canopy conductance, however without an apparent damage to the photochemical pathway. Finally, although C.canephora showed higher heat tolerance than C. arabica, maintaining similar both whole-canopy and leaf CO2 assimilation values in both seasons, its canopy architecture limited whole-canopy gas exchange due to poor light distribution within the canopy.
520. W. N. Rodrigues, T. V. Colodetti, S. V. B. Brinate, L. D. Martins, and M. A. Tomaz, “Genetic Variability for Sprout Growth among Genotypes of Coffea Canephora Led by Bending of Orthotropic Stems,” Genetics and Molecular Research, vol. 16, no. 4, Oct. 2017. doi: 10.4238/gmr16039813. Abstract
     The multi-stem aspect of crop systems using Coffea canephora makes it necessary to correctly establish the number of orthotropic stems per plant during the crop formation. The present study was developed to study the variability of responses among improved genotypes of C. canephora to the technique of bending orthotropic stems as a mean of promoting the sprout growth, allowing producing an adequate number of vigorous sprouts that will be conducted to create the multi-stem canopies. The experiment studied 27 improved genotypes of C. canephora, following a randomized block design, with four replications and six plants per experimental plot. The results show that growth pattern and responsiveness varies among genotypes, and that parameters of biomass allocation and leafiness seems to be good describers to study of genetic variability. The observed variability was enough to cluster the genotypes regarding their response to this technique and to identify groups of genotypes with higher similarity and homogeneous behavior. It is important to identify genotypes from groups of slower growth (e.g., 102, 103 and 301) or lesser emission of new sprouts (e.g., 207 and 301), since these may require additional treatments to develop the adequate number of orthotropic stems in the multi-stem architecture.
521. W. P. Rodrigues et al., “Long-Term Elevated Air [CO2] Strengthens Photosynthetic Functioning and Mitigates the Impact of Supra-Optimal Temperatures in Tropical Coffea Arabica and C. Canephora Species,” Global Change Biology, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 415–431, 2016. doi: 10.1111/gcb.13088. Abstract
     The tropical coffee crop has been predicted to be threatened by future climate changes and global warming. However, the real biological effects of such changes remain unknown. Therefore, this work aims to link the physiological and biochemical responses of photosynthesis to elevated air [CO2] and temperature in cultivated genotypes of Coffea arabica L. (cv. Icatu and IPR108) and Coffea canephora cv. Conilon CL153. Plants were grown for ca. 10 months at 25/20 °C (day/night) and 380 or 700 μl CO2 l−1 and then subjected to temperature increase (0.5 °C day−1) to 42/34 °C. Leaf impacts related to stomatal traits, gas exchanges, C isotope composition, fluorescence parameters, thylakoid electron transport and enzyme activities were assessed at 25/20, 31/25, 37/30 and 42/34 °C. The results showed that (1) both species were remarkably heat tolerant up to 37/30 °C, but at 42/34 °C a threshold for irreversible nonstomatal deleterious effects was reached. Impairments were greater in C. arabica (especially in Icatu) and under normal [CO2]. Photosystems and thylakoid electron transport were shown to be quite heat tolerant, contrasting to the enzymes related to energy metabolism, including RuBisCO, which were the most sensitive components. (2) Significant stomatal trait modifications were promoted almost exclusively by temperature and were species dependent. Elevated [CO2], (3) strongly mitigated the impact of temperature on both species, particularly at 42/34 °C, modifying the response to supra-optimal temperatures, (4) promoted higher water-use efficiency under moderately higher temperature (31/25 °C) and (5) did not provoke photosynthetic downregulation. Instead, enhancements in [CO2] strengthened photosynthetic photochemical efficiency, energy use and biochemical functioning at all temperatures. Our novel findings demonstrate a relevant heat resilience of coffee species and that elevated [CO2] remarkably mitigated the impact of heat on coffee physiology, therefore playing a key role in this crop sustainability under future climate change scenarios.
522. W. N. Rodrigues, T. V. Colodetti, L. D. Martins, S. V. B. Brinate, M. A. Tomaz, and A. J. F. T. do, “Nutritional Components of Growth of Arabica Coffee Genotypes Cultivated under Different Levels of Phosphorus Fertilization Studied by Path Analysis,” Australian Journal of Crop Science, vol. 9, no. 12, pp. 1214–1220, Dec. 2015. doi: 10.3316/INFORMIT.769378146172406. Abstract
     The high nutritional exigency of new cultivars of coffee led this study to estimate correlations between nutrient contents and to estimate their direct and indirect effects, by path analysis, over the early growth of eight genotypes of ’Coffea arabica’ L, cultivated in environments with different levels of phosphorus supply. The experiment was conducted under controlled environment, following an 8 5 factorial scheme, in a completely randomized design, with four replications. The factors studied were eight genotypes of ’Coffea arabica’ L. and five conditions of availability of phosphorus in the soil: 0.00, 0.18, 0.36, 0.72, and 1.44 grams of P2O5 per kilogram of soil. The growth analyses were based on dry matter, leaf area, and chlorophyll content accumulated in 150 days of cultivation. The leaf content of P, K, Ca, Mg, Zn, Cu, Fe, and Mn were used as nutritional components. The correlations were estimated and unfolded between direct and indirect effects through path analysis. Significant correlations were observed between nutritional components, and these correlations are modulated by environmental factors, such as soil type and water supply. Different levels of phosphorus fertilization promotes interactions between P Mg, K Ca, Ca Mg, Ca Mn, Ca Zn; Mg Mn, Cu Fe, Cu Mn, and Mg Zn. Some nutritional components cause strong positive effects over the early growth of genotypes of ’Coffea arabica’ L.; highlighting the content of K for accumulation of biomass and development of leaf area, and Fe for chlorophyll synthesis; being possible to be explored in the indirect selection aiming to improve the early growth simultaneously to improvement of nutritional parameters.
523. W. P. Rodrigues et al., “Physiological Aspects, Growth and Yield of ’Coffea’ Spp. in Areas of High Altitude,” Australian Journal of Crop Science, vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 666–674, May 2016. doi: 10.3316/informit.203190995796268. Abstract
     Low temperature and water deficit are the major climatic limitations for the coffee plant, affecting metabolic performance, development and yield. This work aims at evaluating the physiological responses of Coffea spp. genotypes grown in high-altitude (734 m) areas under field conditions, using 3-to-4-year-old plants of ’C. arabica’ cv. Catuca Vermelho (785/15) and ’C. canephora’ cv. Encapa 8111 Clone 02 (02V). Predawn leaf potential water, net photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, internal-to-external CO2 concentration ratio, and chlorophyll a fluorescence (JIPTest) values were assessed in March (adequate temperature and water availability conditions), July (suboptimal temperature) and October (low water availability). The growth of orthotropic and plagiotropic branches and the number of nodes were monitored monthly for 13 months, whereas two years yield was evaluated. Low temperatures (July) affected photosynthesis of both genotypes, although 785/15 showed smaller after-effects by October and unaltered values of almost all fluorescence parameters throughout the year (reflecting a high functional stability), and a higher number of nodes with a potential positive impact on yield. The 02V plants also kept relevant photochemical functioning, maintaining the values of several JIPTest parameters, a branch growth higher than 785/15, and a similar yield to that found for 02V in some low-altitude areas. Therefore, ’C. canephora’ was able to cope with moderate low temperature and water deficit constraints that prevail in areas of higher altitudes for part of the year, while maintaining yield performance. Therefore, this genotype shows considerable potential to be cultivated at higher altitudes than what is traditionally considered adequate for ’C. canephora’.
524. W. P. Rodrigues et al., “Stomatal and Photochemical Limitations of Photosynthesis in Coffee (Coffea Spp.) Plants Subjected to Elevated Temperatures,” Crop and Pasture Science, vol. 69, no. 3, pp. 317–325, Mar. 2018. doi: 10.1071/CP17044. Abstract
     Temperature increase assumes a prominent role in the context of expected climate change because of its significant impact on plant metabolism. High temperature can affect the carbon-assimilation pathway at both stomatal and non-stomatal levels, mainly through stomatal closure and photochemical and biochemical limitations. In general, however, plants have some ability to trigger acclimation mechanisms to cope with stressful conditions, especially if the limitations are imposed in a gradual manner during seasonal change. This study aims at evaluating changes at stomatal and photochemical levels in Coffea arabica and C. canephora under exposure to mild temperature (spring) and high temperature (summer). Potted plants were maintained in a greenhouse, watered to field capacity and subject to natural variations of light, temperature and relative humidity. In C. arabica, exposure to summer conditions decreased photosynthetic rates (A), stomatal conductance (gs) and stomatal density and increased intrinsic water-use efficiency (iWUE) compared with spring values, whereas C. canephora plants maintained similar values in both seasons. However, C. canephora presented lower A and gs during spring than C. arabica. Because photosynthetic capacity (Amax), photosynthetic performance index and membrane permeability were similar between genotypes and seasons, and maximum quantum yield (Fv/Fm) and photosynthetic pigments were not affected in C. arabica in summer, we conclude that under high temperature conditions, stomatal closure imposes the major limitation on C. arabica photosynthesis in summer. Finally, both coffee genotypes were able to avoid damage to photochemistry pathway under supra-optimal temperatures.
525. W. P. Rodrigues et al., “Whole-Canopy Gas Exchanges in Coffea Sp. Is Affected by Supra-Optimal Temperature and Light Distribution within the Canopy: The Insights from an Improved Multi-Chamber System,” Scientia Horticulturae, vol. 211, pp. 194–202, Nov. 2016. doi: 10.1016/j.scienta.2016.08.022. Abstract
     Whole-canopy gas exchange provides a more accurate measurement of CO2 assimilation (Ac) and transpiration (Ec) compared to single-leaf. The objectives of this study were to evaluate whole-canopy gas exchange of 2 coffee species: Coffea arabica cv. Catuaí Amarelo-Catuaí and Coffea canephora cv. Emcapa 8111 Clone 02–Clone 02 during two different seasons varying in temperature. Six plants >1-year-old of each species were grown in pots (100L) in a greenhouse. Soil moisture was maintained at field capacity. Data were continuously collected for 10days during spring (September 2014—moderate temperatures) and summer (February 2015 with high temperature) and micrometeorological variables were monitored inside the greenhouse. Catuaí had a lower area leaf and higher branch angle resulting in greater light distribution within the canopy that contributed to higher net photosynthesis and transpiration as compared to Clone 02 in both seasons. Catuaí had reduced whole-canopy CO2 assimilation and transpiration during summer, mainly linked to reduced whole-canopy conductance. However, Clone 02 had similar whole-canopy CO2 assimilation and transpiration values in both seasons. Despite reduced gas exchange for Catuaí during summer, the relationship between Ac and Ec indicated that Catuaí had a greater instantaneous WUEc than Clone 02 during spring and there were no differences between species during summer. The dense canopy architecture of Clone 02 limited whole-canopy gas exchange due to poor light distribution within the canopy whereas Catuaí had better canopy light distribution resulting in higher photosynthetic rates than Clone 02 during spring. Additionally, the architecture had a negative effect when Catuaí experiences increased temperature that reduced whole-canopy conductance. High temperatures may limit the growth and production of coffee plants in tropical areas.
526. D. Rodríguez, J. R. Cure, J. M. Cotes, A. P. Gutierrez, and F. Cantor, “A Coffee Agroecosystem Model: I. Growth and Development of the Coffee Plant,” Ecological Modelling, vol. 222, no. 19, pp. 3626–3639, Oct. 2011. doi: 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2011.08.003. Abstract
     This paper is the first of three on the coffee production system consisting of (1) the coffee plant, (2) coffee berry borer (CBB) and (3) the role of CBB parasitoids. A previous simulation model of the coffee plant was developed using data from Brazil where coffee phenology is characterized by distinct seasonal flowering (Gutierrez et al., 1998). In contrast, flowering in Colombia is continuous with low seasonality. To capture the differences in coffee phenology and growth in the two climatic regions, the Gutierrez et al. (1998) model was modified using new data from Colombia. The modifications to the model include:(1)The effect of solar radiation on floral buds initiation;(2)An age structure population model to track the daily input and development of the floral buds;(3)The effect of leaf water potential on breaking dormancy in flower buds, and hence on the timing and intensity of flowering;(4)The incorporation of both the vegetative and the reproductive demands to predict the photosynthetic rate.(5)The effect of low temperature on photosynthesis and defoliation. Other aspects of the model were re-interpreted and refinements made to generalize its structure for use across coffee varieties and geographic areas. The model, without modification, realistically simulates field data from Brazil and two Colombian locations having different varieties, patterns of rainfall and hence flowering phenology. The model will be used as the base trophic level for incorporating CBB and high tropic levels effects, and for the analysis of management options in the coffee production system.
527. N. F. Rodríguez-López et al., “Morphological and Physiological Acclimations of Coffee Seedlings to Growth over a Range of Fixed or Changing Light Supplies,” Environmental and Experimental Botany, vol. 102, pp. 1–10, Jun. 2014. doi: 10.1016/j.envexpbot.2014.01.008. Abstract
     Acclimations to low and high light levels are located in opposite extremes. We examined how the coffee plant (Coffea arabica), which is considered to be shade-demanding although it performs well under full sun exposure, can acclimate to a range of light regimens. We hypothesised that the growth and physiological performance depends on the total amount of light received by the plant per day and on the temporal order of diurnal variations in the light supply. The biomass accumulation and allocation and the key photosynthetic traits of pot-grown coffee seedlings were examined over a range of light treatments as follows: plants grown entirely under 100%, 40% or 10% sunlight; plants grown at either 40% or 10% sunlight from sunrise to midday and then submitted to full sunlight until sunset; and plants grown under full sunlight from sunrise to midday and then submitted to either 40% or 10% sunlight throughout the afternoon. The total biomass increased linearly with the increasing total light supply; however, plants receiving high amounts of light in the morning grew more than those receiving high amounts of light in the afternoon. Extensive morphological changes (e.g., specific leaf areas and leaf area ratios) primarily responsive to total light rather than diurnal light fluctuations or light quality, at a given light supply, were noted. In contrast, changes in the photosynthetic performance per unit leaf area among the treatments were narrower and apparently unrelated to carbohydrate accumulation or photoinhibition. Overall, we found a poor leaf-level physiological plasticity of traits to light. We suggest that adjustments in leaf number and leaf area, coupled with whole-plant physiological adjustments, could largely account for the differences in the biomass amongst treatments. We also suggest that coffee could be classified as a shade-tolerant species as its traits do not match the requirements of either a classic shade-avoiding or a classic shade-demanding species.
528. N. F. Rodríguez-López et al., “Physiological and Biochemical Abilities of Robusta Coffee Leaves for Acclimation to Cope with Temporal Changes in Light Availability,” Physiologia Plantarum, vol. 149, no. 1, pp. 45–55, 2013. doi: 10.1111/ppl.12010. Abstract
     The effects of varying intensities of light on plants depend on when they occur, even if the total amount of light received is kept constant. We designed an experiment using two clones of robusta coffee (Coffea canephora) intercropped with shelter trees in such a way that allowed us to compare coffee bushes shaded in the morning (SM) with those shaded in the afternoon (SA), and then confronting both with bushes receiving full sunlight over the course of the day (FS). The SM bushes displayed better gas-exchange performance than their SA and FS counterparts, in which the capacity for CO2 fixation was mainly constrained by stomatal (SA bushes) and biochemical (FS bushes) factors. Physiological traits associated with light capture were more responsive to temporal fluctuations of light rather than to the amount of light received, although this behavior could be a clone-specific response. The activity of key antioxidant enzymes differed minimally when comparing the SM and SA clones, but was much larger in FS clones. No signs of photoinhibition or cell damage were found regardless of the light treatments. Acclimations to varying light supplies had no apparent additional cost for constructing and maintaining the leaves regardless of the light supply. Both the SM and SA individuals displayed higher return in terms of revenue streams (e.g. higher mass-based light-saturated photosynthetic rates, photosynthetic nitrogen use efficiencies and long-term water use efficiencies) than their FS counterparts. In conclusion, shading may improve the physiological performance of coffee bushes growing in harsh, tropical environments.
529. R. Rojas-Herrera, F. Quiroz-Figueroa, M. Monforte-González, L. Sánchez-Teyer, and V. M. Loyola-Vargas, “Differential Gene Expression during Somatic Embryogenesis in Coffea Arabica L., Revealed by RT-PCR Differential Display,” Molecular biotechnology, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 43–50, 2002. doi: 10.1385/MB:21:1:043. Abstract
     Molecular and biochemical studies of somatic embryogenesis may help to shed light on the mechanisms governing this phenomenon. In this article, a differential display analysis approach was employed to investigate the changes taking place during the induction of somatic embryogenesis in leaf explants and suspension cultures of coffee. Cloned fragments show homologies to several proteins reported in databases, but only one has previously been described as regulated during somatic embryogenesis. By a reverse dot blot modification, the expression pattern of such fragments was evaluated.
530. C. P. Ronchi et al., “Growth and Photosynthetic Down-Regulation in Coffea Arabica in Response to Restricted Root Volume,” Functional Plant Biology, vol. 33, no. 11, pp. 1013–1023, Nov. 2006. doi: 10.1071/FP06147. Abstract
     Coffee (Coffea arabica L.) plants were grown in small (3-L), medium (10-L) and large (24-L) pots for 115 or 165 d after transplanting (DAT), which allowed different degrees of root restriction. Effects of altered source : sink ratio were evaluated in order to explore possible stomatal and non-stomatal mechanisms of photosynthetic down-regulation. Increasing root restriction brought about large and general reductions in plant growth associated with a rising root : shoot ratio. Treatments did not affect leaf water potential or leaf nutrient status, with the exception of N content, which dropped significantly with increasing root restriction even though an adequate N supply was available. Photosynthesis was severely reduced when plants were grown in small pots; this was largely associated with non-stomatal factors, such as decreased Rubisco activity. At 165 DAT contents of hexose, sucrose, and amino acids decreased in plants grown in smaller pots, while those of starch and hexose-P increased in plants grown in smaller pots. Photosynthetic rates were negatively correlated with the ratio of hexose to free amino acids, but not with hexose content. Activities of acid invertase, sucrose synthase, sucrose-P synthase, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase, starch phosphorylase, glyceraldehyde-3-P dehydrogenase, PPi : fructose-6-P 1-phosphotransferase and NADP : glyceraldehyde-3-P dehydrogenase all decreased with severe root restriction. Glycerate-3-P : Pi and glucose-6-P : fructose-6-P ratios decreased accordingly. Photosynthetic down-regulation was unlikely to have been associated directly with an end-product limitation, but rather with decreases in Rubisco. Such a down-regulation was largely a result of N deficiency caused by growing coffee plants in small pots.
531. P. Roonprapant, A. Arunyanark, and C. Chutteang, “Morphological and Physiological Responses to Water Deficit Stress Conditions of Robusta Coffee (Coffea Canephora) Genotypes in Thailand,” Agriculture and Natural Resources, vol. 55, no. 3, pp. 473–484, Jun. 2021. https://li01.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/anres/article/view/251804. Abstract
     Drought causes crop yield losses and inhibits growth in coffee plants. The morphophysiological responses were investigated of Thai robusta coffee genotypes under water deficit. The seedlings of six robusta coffee genotypes, five local Thai genotypes (SC05, PP01, PP05, SKE06 and TPO17) and a water deficit-tolerant genotype (FRT141) were evaluated under a hydroponics system that simulated water deficit stress using polyethylene glycol (PEG). Morphophysiological parameters were collected 2 wk after stress. The water deficit significantly reduced the mean (± SD) relative water content from 95.3 ± 3.0% in the control to 67.2 ± 6.9% in the stress condition. The mean total leaf water potential was -1.4 ± 0.4 MPa and -0.2 ± 0.1 MPa for the stressed and control plants, respectively. The stressed plants showed significantly decreased stomatal conductance, along with a lower transpiration rate (70–90%) and photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (PSII; 50–80%), which directly affected the net rate of photosynthesis that was almost zero. The number of leaves, total leaf area and total biomass greatly declined after stress. There were significant differences among genotypes. FRT141 had the highest mean number of leaves (29.8 ± 9.0 leaves/plant), total leaf area (912 ± 90 cm2/plant) and total biomass (10.7 ± 2.4 g/plant) under water deficit, indicating that FRT141 was the most tolerant genotype under stress, followed by PP01 and SC05, respectively, while SKE06 and TPO17 were the most sensitive genotypes, respectively, with mean values of 1.3 ± 1.0–2.0 ± 2.0 leaves/plant, 34 ± 28–50 ± 45 cm2/plant and 4.4 ± 2.6–3.1±1.2 g/plant. Furthermore, the tolerant genotypes showed fewer physiological changes, specifically less reduction in the light-adapted quantum efficiency of PSII, electron transport rate and maximum quantum efficiency and less increase in electrolyte leakage in root andleaf cells.
532. S. D. V. F. da Rosa, L. Q. de Melo, A. D. Veiga, S. de Oliveira, C. A. S. Souza, and V. de A. Aguiar, “Coffea arabica L. cv Rubi seedlings formation from seeds or berries at different developmental stages,” Ciência e Agrotecnologia, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 349–356, 2007. doi: 10.1590/S1413-70542007000200013. Abstract
     Coffee seeds present slow germination and poor storage potential, which makes it difficult to seedling formation in a suitable time and under climatic conditions favorable to the crop establishment. The propagation of the coffee plant by means of seedlings Coming from Seeds is Still Widely Achieved and Reducing of the Time is highly desirable, aiming at a good establishment of the stand and the reduction of the percentage of replanting. considering that coffee seeds achieve their maximum germination at the green yellowish and red ripe stages, the present work was undertaken with the purpose of testing an alternative to obtain seedlings, by using both berries and seeds at several developmental stages. the experiment It was conducted in the Seedling Nursery of the Coffee Culture Sector at the Federal University of Lavras. The design was in randomized blocks with four replicates and the seedlings were produced in bags with substrate of earth, manure, simple superphosphate and potassium chlorite (standard substrate). Nine sowing treatments were tested by utilizing seeds or berries Coffea arabica L. cv. Ruby: 1) berries at the green stage; 2) berries at the green stage 10 days after harvest; 3) berries at the green yellowish stage; 4) berries until the green yellowish stage 10 days after harvest; 5) berries at the red ripe stage; 6) seeds from red ripe dried berries to 15% of the water content; 7) seeds from red ripe berries dried to 15% and without parchment; 8) seeds from red ripe berries, dried to 15% of water parchment and with a parchment and pre-soaked in water for six days; and 9) seed from red ripe berry, dried to 15% without a parchment and pre-soaked in water for six days. One hundred and forty days after the start of the experiment, the percentage of emergence (E), emergency velocity index (EVI) and the percentage of seedlings with at least one pair of true leaves (TL) were evaluated. One hundred and eighty after the start of the experiment, the evaluation of the seedlings was proceeded by means of the measurements of stem diameter (D), seedling height (H), root system dry matter (RSDM), shoot dry matter (SDM), leaf area (LA)
533. S. D. V. F. da Rosa, D. da S. Brandão Júnior, É. V. de R. Von Pinho, A. D. Veiga, and L. H. de C. e Silva, “Effects of Different Drying Rates on the Physiological Quality of Coffea Canephora Pierre Seeds,” Brazilian Journal of Plant Physiology, vol. 17, pp. 199–205, Jun. 2005. doi: 10.1590/S1677-04202005000200002. Abstract
     Desiccation tolerance in seeds depends on the species, development stage and drying conditions, especially the water removal rate. Coffea seeds are considered of intermediate performance, because they tolerate relative dehydration compared to orthodox seeds and are sensitive to low temperatures. The objective of this study was to verify the effect of different drying rates on the viability and storability of Coffea canephora seeds. A complete randomized experimental design was used, in a factorial 3 x 5 x 2 design, with three drying rates (fast, intermediate and slow), five final mean water contents after drying (51, 42, 33, 22 and 15 %) and two storage temperatures (10 and 20°C). The germination and seed vigor assessments, using radicle protrusion, cotyledon leaf opening, seedling emergence and emergence speed index, were performed shortly after drying and after two and four months storage. It was observed that with reduction in the water content there was reduction in the germination values and seed vigor, for all the drying rates. The greatest reductions in physiological quality occurred when the seeds were dried quickly and the best results were obtained at the intermediate drying rate. There was an effect of drying rate and storage temperature on the physiological quality of the seeds, and lower germination and vigor values were observed in seeds with lower water content stored at 20°C. C. canephora seeds were tolerant to desiccation down to 15 % water content and can be stored for four months at 10°C. A temperature of 20ºC can be used to store C. canephora seeds, as long as the water content is not reduced to values below 22 % water content.
534. S. D. V. F. da Rosa, P. Mazzafera, R. M. Guimarães, A. D. Veiga, and A. D. Veiga, “Pré-embebição: Efeitos na germinação; crescimento de plântulas e teor de cafeína em sementes de cafeeiro,” Coffee Science - ISSN 1984-3909, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 69–78, Dec. 2007. http://www.coffeescience.ufla.br/index.php/Coffeescience/article/view/41. Abstract
     Coffee seeds (Coffea arabica L.) contains from 1% to 2% of caffeine, a highly water-soluble alkaloid, which inhibits germination of several species. This work was undertaken to evaluate the effects of treatments of pre-imbibition and running water washing on physiological performance and caffeine content of coffee seeds, with the following treatments: pre-imbibition in water under stirring for 6, 12 and 24 hours, followed by fast washing in running water; washing in running water for 6, 12 and 24 hours; pre-imbibition in water for 6, 12, 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours, followed by fast washing in running water, and dry seeds witout parchment. The percentage of root protrusion, of normal seedlings at 30 days, of cotiledonary leaves at 45 days and of the root protrusion velocity index were evaluated. The contents of caffeine, aminoacids and total soluble sugars present in the imbibition solution, as well as the caffeine contents in seeds were also determinated. There were no significant differences in the root protrusion evaluation at fifteen days and the best treatments, evaluated by means of radical protrusion at seven days and of index of germination velocity, were pre-imbibited in water for 48, 72 and 96 hours. As to the percentage of seedlings with cotyledonary leaves opened at 45 days, the pre-imbibition treatments for both 24 and 48 hours provided the best physiological performances of seeds, and in these treatments there were significant reductions of caffeine content between 10% and 18%, respectively. Nevertheless, the detrimental action of caffeine on the physiological performance of coffee seeds, associated with the pre-imbibition treatments should be better investigated.
535. S. K. Roy, S. L. Rahman, and P. C. Datta, “In Vitro Propagation of Mitragyna Parvifolia Korth.,” Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 75–80, Mar. 1988. doi: 10.1007/BF00043110. Abstract
     Multiple shoot formation and their elongation from excised apical vegetative shoots of a 40-year old-tree ofMitragyna parvifolia Korth. was achieved in Murashige and Skoog’s medium supplemented with 4.44 μM benzyl adenine. The in vitro regenerated shoots rooted when cultured on modified Murashige and Skoog’s medium containing low inorganic salts and the three auxins. Regeneration by this method was suitable for mass propagation of the plant.
536. R. Saath, F. Broetto, M. A. M. Biaggioni, F. M. Borém, S. D. V. F. da Rosa, and J. H. da S. Taveira, “Activity of Some Isoenzymatic Systems in Stored Coffee Grains,” Ciência e Agrotecnologia, vol. 38, pp. 15–24, Feb. 2014. doi: 10.1590/S1413-70542014000100002. Abstract
     Considering the worldwide consumption of coffee, it is natural that throughout the history many people have dedicated the research to markers that contribute somehow on gauging its quality. This research aimed to evaluate the biochemical performance of arabica coffee during storage. Coffee in beans (natural) and in parchment (pulped) dried in concrete terrace and in dryer with heated air were packed in jute bags and stored in not controlled environmental conditions. Enzymatic activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, peroxidase, polyphenoloxidase, esterase and lipoxygenase in coffee grains were evaluated at zero, three, six, nine and twelve months by means of electrophoresis. Independently of the drying method, the activity of isoenzymatic complexes highlighted deteriorative processes in stored grains of coffee. The treatments 60/40º C and 60º C used to reduce the water content imposed a greater stress condition, accelerated metabolism of natural coffee in the storage with decreased activity of defense mechanisms due to latent damage in these grains. Natural coffees are more sensible to high drying temperatures and its quality reduces faster than pulped coffee in the storage.
537. L. Sacconnay et al., “Alkaloids from Psychotria Target Sirtuins: In Silico and in Vitro Interaction Studies,” Planta Medica, vol. 81, no. 6, pp. 517–524, Apr. 2015. doi: 10.1055/s-0034-1383261. Abstract
     Epigenetic enzymes such as histone deacetylases play a crucial role in the development of ageing-related diseases. Among the 18 histone deacetylase isoforms found in humans, class III histone deacetylases, also known as sirtuins, seem to be promising targets for treating neurodegenerative conditions. Recently, Psychotria alkaloids, mainly monoterpene indoles, have been reported for their inhibitory properties against central nervous system cholinesterase and monoamine oxidase proteins. Given the multifunctional profile of these alkaloids in the central nervous system, and the fact that the indole scaffold has been previously associated with sirtuin inhibition, we hypothesized that these indole derivatives could also interact with sirtuins. In the present study, alkaloids previously isolated from Psychotria spp. were evaluated for their potential interaction with human sirtuin 1 and sirtuin 2 by molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation approaches. The in silico results allowed for the selection of five potentially active compounds, namely, prunifoleine, 14-oxoprunifoleine, E-vallesiachotamine, Z-vallesiachotamine, and vallesiachotamine lactone. The sirtuin inhibition of these compounds was confirmed in vitro in a dose-response manner, with preliminary information on their pharmacokinetics properties.
538. S. Saefudin and E. Wardiana, “Effect of Varieties and Fruit Maturation Stages on Germinations and Physical of Arabica Coffee Seeds,” Jurnal Tanaman Industri dan Penyegar, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 245–256, Nov. 2013. doi: 10.21082/jtidp.v4n3.2013.p245-256. Abstract
     One characteristic in determining the differences of fruit maturity levels in coffee is based on the difference in colour of epicarp or based on the ages of fruit that is calculated starting on a days after anthesis (HSA). In general, fruits in cherry level can result better germination than green level. This experiment was conducted at Pakuwon Experimental Station, Laboratory and Greenhouse of Indonesian Industrial and Beverage Crops Research Institute, Sukabumi, beginning from April until August 2013. The objectives of this study was to analyze the effect of varieties and fruit maturation stages on germinations and physical components of Arabica coffee seeds. The split plot design with three replications was used in this study. The main plot factors were four varieties of Arabica coffee i.e. Sigarar Utang, Kartika 1, S 795, and Kartika 2. While the split plot factors were four level of fruit maturation stages defined operationally by harvest fruit in cherry level (≈249 HSA), redish-yellow level (≈241 HSA), yellow level (≈233 HSA), and yellowish-green level (≈225 HSA). The results showed that the difference in coffee varieties and fruit maturation stages affect the germination speed of Arabica coffee seed. S 795 more faster to germinate than Sigarar Utang, Kartika 1, and Kartika 2. Similarly, fruit in the cherry level, redish-yellow, and yellow more faster to germinate than fruit in the yellowih-green level. Sigarar Utang has the highest in fresh weight of fruit and seed and dry weight of seed, and the lowest in seed water content, followed by S 795, Kartika 1, and Kartika 2. The germination success not only determined by seed physical quality components but is also influenced by environmental factors.
539. S. A. Ságio, A. A. Lima, H. G. Barreto, C. H. S. de Carvalho, L. V. Paiva, and A. Chalfun-Junior, “Physiological and Molecular Analyses of Early and Late Coffea Arabica Cultivars at Different Stages of Fruit Ripening,” Acta Physiologiae Plantarum, vol. 35, no. 11, pp. 3091–3098, Nov. 2013. doi: 10.1007/s11738-013-1342-6. Abstract
     Coffee quality is strongly influenced by a great number of factors, among which the fruit ripening stage at harvest time has a major influence on this feature. Studies comprising ethylene production and the regulation of ethylene biosynthesis genes during the ripening process indicate that ethylene plays an important role on coffee fruit ripening. Coffee early cultivars usually show a more uniform ripening process although little is known about the genetic factors that promote the earliness of ripening. Thus, in order to better understand the physiological and genetic factors involved in the regulation of ripening time, and consequently ripening uniformity, this study aimed to analyze ethylene and respiration patterns during coffee ripening, as well as to analyze ACC oxidase, an ethylene biosynthesis enzyme, gene expression, in fruits of early (Catucaí 785-15) and late (Acauã) coffee cultivars. Coffee fruits were harvested monthly from 124 days after flowering (end of February), until complete maturation (end of June). Dry matter, moisture content, color, respiratory rate and ethylene production analysis were performed. In silico analysis identified a coffee ACC oxidase gene (CaACO-like) and its expression was analyzed by real-time PCR. Dry matter and relative water content constantly increased and gradually decreased, respectively, during fruit ripening, and the color analysis enabled the observation of the earliness in the ripening process displayed by Catucaí 785-15 and its higher fruit ripening uniformity. The results obtained from the CaACO-like expression analysis and respiration and ethylene analysis suggest that the differences in ripening behavior between the two coffee cultivars analyzed in this study may be related to the differences in their capacity to produce ethylene, with fruits of Catucaí 785-15 and Acauã showing a typical and an attenuated climacteric phase, respectively, which may have lead to differences in their ripening time and uniformity.
540. M. Salgado, M. R. Furlan, E. Aoyama, E. Rodrigues, and L. Cruz, “Propagação Assexuada de Chacrona ( Psychotria Viridis Ruiz & Pavon) Via Estaquia Foliar,” undefined, 2011. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Propaga%C3%A7%C3%A3o-Assexuada-de-Chacrona-(-Psychotria-Ruiz-Salgado-Furlan/ecade49b15bf6d77ac44d00ed64887e378356b75. Abstract
     Este trabalho demonstra a viabilidade das estacas foliares da chacrona, concluindo that cortes nas nervuras estimulam o enraizamento, desde que as estacas Foliares fiquem em contato permanente com umidade. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a propagacao assexuada de chacrona (Psychotria viridis) por meio de estacas foliares. Os tratamentos foram: A - estacas foliares inteiras; B - estacas foliares com o terco superior cortado; C – com o terco inferior das estacas retirado; D – com cortes sobre a nervura primaria das estacas foliares; e E - estacas com cortes sobre as nervuras secundarias das folhas. As estacas foram imersas em agua destilada durante um periodo de 70 dias. Em todos os tratamentos foi observado que o enraizamento ocorreu na regiao do corte, ou no local onde ocorreu a incisao na nervura. Este trabalho demonstra a viabilidade das estacas foliares da chacrona, concluindo que cortes nas nervuras estimulam o enraizamento, desde que as estacas foliares fiquem em contato permanente com umidade.
541. N. Sangeetha, R. Sankar, S. Mercy, A. H. S. Kumari, M. Kavitha, and D. Ganesh, “In Vitro Conservation of Zygotic Embryos of Coffea Arabica L.,” Journal of Plantation Crops, vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 82–86, 2010.
542. N. A. Sanglard et al., “Indirect Somatic Embryogenesis in Coffea with Different Ploidy Levels: A Revisiting and Updating Study,” Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture (PCTOC), vol. 136, no. 2, pp. 255–267, 2019. doi: 10.1007/s11240-018-1511-9. Abstract
     Indirect somatic embryogenesis (ISE) is required for plant propagation and a prerequisite for applications that may provide new germplasms. Genetic, epigenetic and physiological features of the explant donor are barriers for ISE establishment, hindering its wide use. Despite the identification and/or expression analysis of genes during ISE, no approach to establish the karyotype aspects has been performed so far. So, this study aims to establish the ISE and compare the in vitro responses between diploid (Coffea canephora and Coffea eugenioides), allotriploid (“Híbrido de Timor”—HT) and true allotetraploid (Coffea arabica) Coffea in a taxonomic and evolutive scenario. Under the same in vitro conditions, the four Coffea differed from each other during ISE. Leaf explants of the true allopolyploids yielded the highest mean number of friable calli (FC) in relative short time and visually exhibiting more pronounced length. FC of the allotetraploid C. arabica presented the highest mean number of mature cotyledonary somatic embryos (MCSE), which were also recovered faster in this species. However, MCSE mean number in HT was the same or lower than diploid Coffea. Besides, intraspecific variation related to the ISE responses was observed in each Coffea, mainly the mean number of FC obtained from ex vitro and in vitro C. arabica and C. eugenioides explants. So, epigenetic and physiologic features may also have influenced the ISE responses. The findings provide the basis for performing other approaches considering the ploidy level, epigenetic and physiological backgrounds. Besides, the data also contributed for understanding about the consequences of polyploidy.
543. F. C. Santos, S. D. V. F. da Rosa, É. V. de R. V. Pinho, M. A. Cirillo, and A. da C. S. Clemente, “Desiccation Sensitivity from Different Coffee Seed Phenological Stages,” Journal of Seed Science, vol. 36, pp. 25–31, 2014. http://www.scielo.br/j/jss/a/nGrxW8fDmzJJVzFBKHSmMnx/?lang=en. Abstract
     Maturity stage and drying method are the factors that most influence coffee seed quality. The objective of this study was to assess the physiological quality and investigate the electrophoretic patterns of catalase and endo-β-mannanase enzymes and heat resistant proteins in coffee seeds harvested at different phenological stages and dried under different conditions. Physiological quality was assessed when the seeds had developed the green, greenish-yellow, cherry, overripe and dry stages after three treatments: no drying, conventional drying and fast drying. After each treatment, the physiological quality of the seeds was assessed using the germination test and electrophoretic patterns of heat resistant proteins and the activity of catalase and endo-β-mannanase enzymes. Seeds harvested at the cherry phenological stage had the best physiological quality, and the drying process reduced quality at the cherry, overripe and dry stages. This reduction was greater under the faster drying process, but at the greenish-yellow stage, seeds had better physiological quality after slow drying. Regarding the results from electrophoretic analysis, endo-β-mannanase and catalase activities increase as the ripeness stages advance; the activity of endo-β-mannanase is directly associated with the deterioration process; the expression of heat resistant proteins increases with maturation process and is associated with seed physiological quality.
544. R. G. Santos, J. Landeira-Fernandez, R. J. Strassman, V. Motta, and A. P. M. Cruz, “Effects of Ayahuasca on Psychometric Measures of Anxiety, Panic-like and Hopelessness in Santo Daime Members,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 112, no. 3, pp. 507–513, Jul. 2007. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2007.04.012. Abstract
     The use of the hallucinogenic brew ayahuasca, obtained from infusing the shredded stalk of the malpighiaceous plant Banisteriopsis caapi with the leaves of other plants such as Psychotria viridis, is growing in urban centers of Europe, South and North America in the last several decades. Despite this diffusion, little is known about its effects on emotional states. The present study investigated the effects of ayahuasca on psychometric measures of anxiety, panic-like and hopelessness in members of the Santo Daime, an ayahuasca-using religion. Standard questionnaires were used to evaluate state-anxiety (STAI-state), trait-anxiety (STAI-trait), panic-like (ASI-R) and hopelessness (BHS) in participants that ingested ayahuasca for at least 10 consecutive years. The study was done in the Santo Daime church, where the questionnaires were administered 1h after the ingestion of the brew, in a double-blind, placebo-controlled procedure. While under the acute effects of ayahuasca, participants scored lower on the scales for panic and hopelessness related states. Ayahuasca ingestion did not modify state- or trait-anxiety. The results are discussed in terms of the possible use of ayahuasca in alleviating signs of hopelessness and panic-like related symptoms.
545. G. C. Santos, E. V. R. Von Pinho, and S. D. V. F. Rosa, “Gene Expression of Coffee Seed Oxidation and Germination Processes during Drying,” Genetics and molecular research, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 6968–6982, Dec. 2013. doi: 10.4238/2013.December.19.16. Abstract
     Coffee (Coffea arabica L.) seeds are sensitive to desiccation and oxidative stress during drying processes. We investigated the effect of drying and moisture levels on germination-related gene expressions associated with enzymatic systems that prevent oxidative stress in coffee seeds. Coffee seeds collected at physiological maturity were subjected to slow and quick drying to 40, 30, 20, and 12% moisture levels (wet basis), and as the control, seeds without drying were used. The seeds’ physiological quality was calculated as percentage of normal seedlings at 15 and 30 days, normal vigorous seedlings at 30 days, and cotyledonary leaves at 45 days. The isoenzymes esterase, catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POX), and endo-β-mannanase expressions were electrophoretically analyzed. CAT and POX expressions were analyzed using RT-qPCR with specific primers constructed from the target gene sequences from the Brazilian Coffee Genome Database. Slow drying showed better physiological quality for seeds at 40 and 12% moisture levels, while quick drying was the most effective for seeds with 20% moisture. Sensitivity to water loss was confirmed by quick drying and activation of enzymes. CAT and POX transcriptions reduced during drying. RT-qPCR revealed a complex gene-expression pattern during the oxidative process, with high gene expression in wet seeds.
546. T. B. dos Santos, J. E. Lima, M. S. Felicio, J. D. M. Soares, and D. S. Domingues, “Genome-Wide Identification, Classification and Transcriptional Analysis of Nitrate and Ammonium Transporters in Coffea,” Genetics and Molecular Biology, vol. 40, pp. 346–359, Apr. 2017. doi: 10.1590/1678-4685-GMB-2016-0041. Abstract
     Abstract Nitrogen (N) is quantitatively the main nutrient required by coffee plants, with acquisition mainly by the roots and mostly exported to coffee beans. Nitrate (NO3–) and ammonium (NH4+) are the most important inorganic sources for N uptake. Several N transporters encoded by different gene families mediate the uptake of these compounds. They have an important role in source preference for N uptake in the root system. In this study, we performed a genome-wide analysis, including in silico expression and phylogenetic analyses of AMT1, AMT2, NRT1/PTR, and NRT2 transporters in the recently sequenced Coffea canephora genome. We analyzed the expression of six selected transporters in Coffea arabica roots submitted to N deficiency. N source preference was also analyzed in C. arabica using isotopes. C. canephora N transporters follow the patterns observed for most eudicots, where each member of the AMT and NRT families has a particular role in N mobilization, and where some of these are modulated by N deficiency. Despite the prevalence of putative nitrate transporters in the Coffea genome, ammonium was the preferential inorganic N source for N-starved C. arabica roots. This data provides an important basis for fundamental and applied studies to depict molecular mechanisms involved in N uptake in coffee trees.
547. T. Santos and A. Farah, “Introduction to Coffee Plant and Genetics,” 2019, pp. 1–25. Abstract
     The coffee beverage that we know and appreciate results from roasted seeds from trees belonging to the botanical family Rubiaceae, genus Coffea. Although over 100 species within the genus Coffea have been catalogued, only two are actually of great importance in the world market, C. arabica L. and C. canephora Pierre. Even though the great complexity in the taxonomic classification of coffee makes it difficult to unveil the paths followed by the Coffea genus on its way from Africa to being cultivated worldwide, the present chapter briefly introduces this journey. Since knowledge of the coffee plant and its characteristics is fundamental for understanding coffee growing and related agronomic aspects, this will also be discussed.
548. A. Sarmiento-Soler et al., “Effect of Cropping System, Shade Cover and Altitudinal Gradient on Coffee Yield Components at Mt. Elgon, Uganda,” Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, vol. 295, p. 106887, Jun. 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.agee.2020.106887. Abstract
     Coffee is a key export commodity of East Africa, but average smallholders’ yields are low. To guide sustainable yield improvements of smallholders’ coffee systems, we investigated coffee yield components in three different types of coffee cropping systems along an altitude gradient (1100−2100 m.a.s.l.) during two production years (2015 and 2016). We selected 810 coffee trees distributed over 27 farms and monitored number of stems per tree, fruit load per branch, productive nodes per branch (on four branches of one stem per tree) and number of productive branches per stem (on one stem per selected tree) in both years. Additionally, we monitored productive stems per ha, coffee tree density and cherry weight in combination with pest and disease occurrence and management information from interviews. Coffee farms were classified as Coffee-Open (CO) (< 20 % shade cover), Coffee-Banana (CB) (coffee dominantly intercropped with bananas) or Coffee-shade Tree (CT) (coffee dominantly intercropped with shade trees). Coffee-Banana had larger yield per ha (green bean kg ha−1) (1086 ± 736 kg ha−1) and yield per stem (green bean kg stem−1) (0.24 ± 0.16 kg stem−1) than CO (670 ± 457 kg ha−1 and 0.21 ± 0.26 kg stem−1) and CT (428 ± 259 kg ha-1 and 0.10 ± 0.12 kg stem−1). Fruit loads, productive nodes, productive branches and cherry weight declined with shade cover, especially for shade cover > 30 %. Additionally, the same yield components correlated negatively with number of stems per tree. Fertilizer and fungicide use were related to more productive branches and cherry weight respectively, and stem borer was identified as the most important pest in this area. Our results suggest that yield in the region could be increased, i) by maintaining shade at an intermediate level, particularly at low and mid altitude and by reducing the number of stems per coffee tree (<4), and ii) by improving soil fertility and protection against pest and disease.
549. R. M. Sassaki, J. N. Rondon, L. B. P. Zaidan, and G. M. Felippe, “Germination of Seeds from Herbaceous Plants Artificially Stored in Cerrado Soil,” Revista Brasileira de Biologia, vol. 59, pp. 271–279, May 1999. doi: 10.1590/S0034-71081999000200011. Abstract
     The germination of three cerrado herbaceous species: Bidens gardneri, Vernonia herbacea (Asteraceae) and Psychotria barbiflora (Rubiaceae) was studied using seeds stored in cerrado soil and in refrigerator at 4°C. The field experiment was carried out at a preserved area of cerrado, the Reserva Biológica e Estação Experimental de Mogi-Guaçu, State of São Paulo, Brazil. The soil was collected in the same cerrado where the experiment was carried out. The achenes of Bidens gardneri are light sensitive, but this sensitivity disappeared when the achenes were stored in soil. With 3 months storage in cerrado soil no differences in germination in light or darkness were detected. The number of intact achenes retrieved from storage in soil decreased with increasing time of storage. A large number of seeds had already germinated during the 3 months storage in soil. The longevity of seeds of this species stored for nearly 10 years at 4°C was checked: the achenes were viable for a long period of time but less than 10 years. Intact achenes of Vernonia herbacea could be retrieved from the soil only with 1 month storage. Germination was always very low and only 15% of the achenes possessed embryos. The number of intact seeds of Psychotria barbiflora decreased the longer the period of storage in soil. Germination of seeds stored at 4°C or in the soil was always very low. From the germination studies of stored seeds in cerrado it can be concluded that Vernonia herbacea does not form a seed bank and Bidens gardneri and Psychotria barbiflora may form a temporary seed bank in cerrado.
550. M. C. Sattler, C. R. Carvalho, and W. R. Clarindo, “Regeneration of Allotriploid Coffea Plants from Tissue Culture: Resolving the Propagation Problems Promoted by Irregular Meiosis,” Cytologia, vol. 81, no. 2, pp. 125–132, 2016. doi: doi.org/10.1508/cytologia.81.125. Abstract
     Híbrido de Timor” (HT) is a natural interspecific hybrid of Coffea arabica L. with Coffea canephora Pierre ex Froehner that has played a substantial role in breeding programs as source of resistance genes. The original HT plant is represented by the anorthoploid accession ‘CIFC 4106’, an allotriploid plant with 3x=33 chromosomes and 2C=2.10 pg. From this HT plant, other accessions have been obtained and used in crossings with C. arabica to provide resistant plants to the main pathogens. However, each HT accession and their derivates show a particular karyotype due to irregular anaphasic disjunction, which results in a few reproductive cells with an unbalanced number of chromosomes. Regarding this fact and the crop relevance of HT, this study aimed to develop a direct somatic embryogenesis system for the clonal propagation of this germplasm, using the first HT plant as explant donor. To accomplish this purpose, disinfested leaf explants of greenhouse-cultivated HT ‘CIFC 4106’ plants were inoculated in medium supplied with 0.001 g L−1 6-benzylaminopurine. Somatic embryogenesis process was asynchronous, with distinct developmental stages occurring simultaneously. Besides, emergence of secondary embryos from primary ones was observed. Mature embryos were germinated, and well-rooted embryos were selected for plantlet regeneration. The nuclear DNA content and the karyotype showed that allotriploidy was conserved in all regenerated plantlets. Considering these results, the direct somatic embryogenesis protocol adopted in the present work was imperative for the accurate clonal propagation of HT, being relevant for multiplication and conservation of elite accessions that show an irregular meiosis.
551. J. E. Saxton, “Chapter 5 Alkaloids Of Mitragyna and Ourouparia Species,” in The Alkaloids: Chemistry and Physiology, vol. 8, R. H. F. Manske, Ed. Academic Press, 1965, pp. 59–91. doi: 10.1016/S1876-0813(08)60044-5. Abstract
     This chapter describes alkaloids of Mitragyna and Ourouparia species. The genera Mitragyna and Ourouparia, (Uncaria) (Rubiaceae) flourish in widely distributed tropical and subtropical regions. Several Mitragyna species that are large trees indigenous to West Africa, Southeastern Asia, and the Philippines find commercial use in the timber and paper industries. The leaves of M. speciosa Korth are chewed as a narcotic in Siam, and, in common with leaves of M. parvifolia Korth., enjoy an undeserved reputation as a cure for opium addiction. In West Africa, the bark of M. africana Korth is used as a febrifuge. Species of the genus Ourouparia are large, woody climbing plants, also found in tropical regions, particularly in the Far East. The occurrence of alkaloids in Mitragyna species was first reported by Hooper, who isolated a crystalline alkaloid in 0.15% yield from the leaves of M. parvifoolia.
552. R. E. Schultes, “De Plantis Toxicariis E Mundo Novo Tropicale Commentationes X: New Data on the Malpighiaceous Narcotics of South America,” Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 137–147, 1972. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41762276.
553. B. Seer, “Beginner’s Guide to Healing with Ayahuasca,” EntheoNation. Jan-2018. https://entheonation.com/blog/ayahuasca-healing-guide/. Abstract
     Ayahuasca has been used for thousands of years for medicinal & spiritual purposes. Learn how to use ayahuasca for healing & spiritual growth.
554. D. Selmar, G. Bytof, S.-E. Knopp, and B. Breitenstein, “Germination of Coffee Seeds and Its Significance for Coffee Quality,” Plant Biology, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 260–264, Mar. 2006. doi: 10.1055/s-2006-923845. Abstract
     Besides genotypic characteristics, the crucial factor that determines coffee quality is the mode of post-harvest treatment, i.e., the wet and dry processing. Up to now, the resulting characteristic flavour differences between these differentially processed coffees were attributed exclusively to differences in starting material. However, as these quality differences are still evident, even when identical coffee samples were processed by the two methods in parallel, the differences must be created by metabolic processes in the coffee beans themselves. Based on expression studies of the germination-specific isocitrate lyase and the resumption of cell cycle activity, monitored by the abundance of β-tubulin, we evidence that germination is initiated in coffee seeds during the course of standard coffee post-harvest treatments. The extent and nature of the germination processes depend on the processing method. The coherence of metabolic events, substantial differences in the chemical composition of the coffee beans, and the generation of specific coffee qualities establishes the basis for a quite novel approach in coffee research.
555. D. Selmar, G. Bytof, and S.-E. Knopp, “The Storage of Green Coffee (Coffea Arabica): Decrease of Viability and Changes of Potential Aroma Precursors,” Annals of Botany, vol. 101, no. 1, pp. 31–38, Jan. 2008. doi: 10.1093/aob/mcm277. Abstract
     When green coffee is stored for a prolonged time the coffee quality decreases distinctively. Apart from well-known ‘off-notes’ that arise from undesired oxidations of lipids, a typical ‘flattening’ of the cup quality is detectable. In order to elucidate the biological causes for this phenomenon, differentially processed coffees (wet, dry, semi-dry processing), were stored under standard conditions for 2 years and analysed comprehensively.Wet-processed coffee was stored either as parchment coffee, where the endocarp remained around the beans or as hulled beans. Viability of coffee seeds was estimated using the tetrazolium-test of seed viability. Changes in concentration of free amino acids and soluble carbohydrates were analysed by HPLC.Whereas all other coffees lost viability within the first 6 months of storage, coffee beans stored within the parchment remained viable for >1 year. Glucose and fructose decreased slightly in the course of storage and glutamine content declined significantly. However, the changes observed in sugar and amino acid content were not correlated with the viability of the coffee beans. Consequently, neither typical metabolic reactions occurring within living cells nor characteristic post-mortem reactions could be responsible for the observed changes. As a result of post-mortem reactions in re-imbibed seeds, a characteristic bluish-green colour developed, putatively due to the oxidation of chlorogenic acids and subsequent reactions with primary amino compounds. This coloration might be an appropriate marker to substantiate if coffee seeds had been stored for an expanded time and putative quality losses were not relevant so far.It is suggested that loss of viability is relevant for the aroma flattening. As neither metabolic nor post-mortem reactions were responsible for the observed changes, it is concluded that Maillard reactions that occur during storage might be the cause of the decrease in potential aroma precursors.
556. F. Senbeta, M. Denich, H. J. Boehmer, T. Woldemariam, D. Teketay, and S. Demissew, “Wild Coffea Arabica L. in Afromontane Rainforests of Ethiopia: Distribution, Ecology and Conservation,” SINET: Ethiopian Journal of Science, vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 13–24, 2007. doi: 10.4314/sinet.v30i1.18278. Abstract
     Coffea arabica is native to the Afromontane rainforests of Ethiopia. These rainforests are the last refugia for wild genetic resources of Arabica coffee. To understand the ecological characteristics and the conservation options of wild coffee populations, a study was conducted in Bonga, Harenna, Maji, Berhane-Kontir and Yayu forests. In each forest, quadrants of 20 x 20 m were laid along transects to collect coffee related data. Wild populations of Arabica coffee are distributed over a wide range of geographical regions, but locally have a patchy distribution in the rainforests. The highest abundance of wild coffee plants per plot was recorded in Yayu and the lowest in the Bonga/Berhane-Kontir forests. A low frequency of occurrence was observed in Harenna (71%) and the highest in Maji and Yayu forests (100%). This is related to the major spatial discontinuities caused by factors in edaphic, biotic, microclimatic and topographic features. Wild coffee occurs mostly between 1000 m and 2000 m but its critical altitude is between 1300 m and 1600 m. There is a negative correlation between the abundance of wild coffee and an increase in slope angle. The wild populations of Arabica coffee are also influenced by the structural arrangement of the forest. Slight forest disturbance such as selective tree cutting may create favorable environmental conditions for coffee recruitment. However, serious disturbances such as overgrazing can limit the regeneration capacity of coffee plants in the forest. To conserve the greatest possible amount of wild coffee populations, the rainforests must be maintained and not converted to other types of land use. Nature reserve networks should be established across the Afromontane rainforests of Ethiopia.
557. N. Sengnon et al., “Seasonal and Geographic Variation in Alkaloid Content of Kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa (Korth.) Havil.) from Thailand,” Plants, vol. 12, no. 4, p. 949, Jan. 2023. doi: 10.3390/plants12040949. Abstract
     The objective of this study was to obtain data on the distribution of alkaloids in kratom plants grown in Thailand. Two collections were performed, covering the southern, central, and northern regions of Thailand and different seasons. The contents of alkaloids, including mitragynine (MG), paynantheine (PAY), and speciogynine (SG), were determined using the validated HPLC method. The 134 samples in the first collection were collected from Nam Phu subdistrict, Ban Na San, Surat Thani, Thailand, during June and October 2019 and January 2020. The maximum mitragynine content was 4.94% w/w in June (late summer), and the minimum content was 0.74% w/w in October (rainy season). To expand the study area after kratom decriminalization, 611 samples were collected in June–August 2021, October–December 2021, and January–April 2022. The accumulation of MG ranged from 0.35 to 3.46% w/w, 0.31 to 2.54% w/w, and 0.48 to 2.81% w/w, respectively. The meteorological data supported the climate’s effect on alkaloid production. Soil analysis revealed the importance of Ca and Mg in promoting alkaloid production. Geographical locations played a role in the variation of MG in kratom leaves, but did not affect the color of leaf veins. In conclusion, the present study suggested that the alkaloid content in kratom diverges based on seasonal and geographical origin.
558. A. Sharma et al., “Simultaneous Quantification of Ten Key Kratom Alkaloids in Mitragyna Speciosa Leaf Extracts and Commercial Products by Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry,” Drug testing and analysis, vol. 11, no. 8, pp. 1162–1171, Aug. 2019. doi: 10.1002/dta.2604. Abstract
     Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) is a psychoactive plant popular in the United States for the self-treatment of pain and opioid addiction. For standardization and quality control of raw and commercial kratom products, an ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method was developed and validated for the quantification of ten key alkaloids, namely: corynantheidine, corynoxine, corynoxine B, 7-hydroxymitragynine, isocorynantheidine, mitragynine, mitraphylline, paynantheine, speciociliatine, and speciogynine. Chromatographic separation of diastereomers, or alkaloids sharing same ion transitions, was achieved on an Acquity BEH C18 column with a gradient elution using a mobile phase containing acetonitrile and aqueous ammonium acetate buffer (10mM, pH 3.5). The developed method was linear over a concentration range of 1–200 ng/mL for each alkaloid. The total analysis time per sample was 22.5 minutes. The analytical method was validated for accuracy, precision, robustness, and stability. After successful validation, the method was applied for the quantification of kratom alkaloids in alkaloid-rich fractions, ethanolic extracts, lyophilized teas, and commercial products. Mitragynine (0.7%–38.7% w/w), paynantheine (0.3%–12.8% w/w), speciociliatine (0.4%–12.3% w/w), and speciogynine (0.1%–5.3% w/w) were the major alkaloids in the analyzed kratom products/extracts. Minor kratom alkaloids (corynantheidine, corynoxine, corynoxine B, 7-hydroxymitragynine, isocorynantheidine) were also quantified (0.01%–2.8% w/w) in the analyzed products; however mitraphylline was below the lower limit of quantification in all analyses.
559. E. J. Shellard and K. Sarpong, “The Alkaloidal Pattern in the Leaves, Stem-Bark and Root-Bark of Mitragyna Species from Ghana,” The Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, p. Suppl:34S+, Dec. 1970. doi: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1970.tb08577.x.
560. E. J. Shellard, A. H. Beckett, P. Tantivatana, J. D. Phillipson, and C. M. Lee, “Alkaloids from Mitragyna Javanica, Koord. and Valeton and Mitragyna Hirsuta, Havil,” Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, vol. 18, no. 8, pp. 553–555, 1966. doi: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1966.tb07931.x.
561. E. J. Shellard, “The Alkaloids of Mitragyna with Special Reference to Those of Mitragyna Speciosa, Korth,” Bulletin on Narcotics, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 41–55, 1974 Apr-Jun.
562. E. J. Shellard and P. K. Lala, “The Alkaloids of Mitragyna Rubrostipulata (Schum.) Havil,” Planta Medica, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 63–69, Feb. 1978. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1097360. Abstract
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563. E. J. Shellard and P. J. Houghton, “The Conversion of Pseudo Heteroyohimbine Alkaloids to Oxindoles – Part Ii ’in Vivo’ Studies in Mitragyna Parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth,” Planta Medica, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 16–21, Feb. 1972. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1099519. Abstract
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564. E. J. Shellard, “Ethnopharmacology of Kratom and the Mitragyna Alkaloids,” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 123–124, Feb. 1989. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(89)90053-6. Abstract
     Mitragyna speciosa Korth., is a controversial plant that possesses various medicinal values and has been used from time immemorial in folk medicine. Recently, it has been widely abused as a narcotic source. The aim of the present study was to characterize the in vitro nitric oxide (NO) inhibition property of the supercritical CO2 fluid extracts from M. speciosa leaves and to identify the chemical constituents of the extract that exhibited the most inhibition without toxicity effect. Samples were extracted using the green technology, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) technique via CO2 as the mobile phase. The NO inhibitory activity was evaluated by Griess assay, which measures the formation of nitrite ion (NO2−) in recombinant mouse interferon gamma/lipopolysaccharide (IFN-γ/LPS) stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Matrix 5 Step-1 (M5S1) that was extracted with pure CO2 at 3000 psi and 60 °C exhibited the highest NO inhibitory activity (60.08%) without cytotoxicity (cell viability, 91.98%) at a concentration of 100 μg/mL. GC and GC–MS analysis revealed palmitic acid as the major constituent (34.90%) of M5S1. This study provides first evidence that M5S1, the non-alkaloidal extract obtained by supercritical fluid extraction of M. speciosa leaves possesses potential property in preventing inflammatory diseases mediated by excessive production of NO. A microdialysis system coupled with a sensitive ultra-fast liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (UFLC-MS) method was developed for the pharmacokinetic analysis of mitragynine in rat blood and striatum. Mitragynine is an active alkaloid of Mitragyna speciosa and has been proposed to be used for opioid withdrawal therapy. In this study, chromatographic separation was performed in a gradient elution mode with 0.1% formic acid and acetonitrile on a Zorbax Eclipse C18 column. The mass spectrometric (MS) analysis was carried out in a positive electrospray mode and mitragynine ion (m/z 399.2) was monitored in extracted ion chromatography. A good linearity range was obtained from 10-1000 ng/mL with acceptable accuracy and precision parameters. The microdialysate was collected simultaneously from the striatum and the right jugular vein using microdialysis probes. After a single intravenous administration of 10 mg/kg mitragynine, mitragynine showed a two-compartmental drug elimination pattern with half-life (T1/2) of approximately 13 h. The percent of AUCbrain/AUCplasma of mitragynine was calculated and shown to be 65.8 ± 4.5%. The results indicated that mitragynine could be a suitable molecule to develop into an opioid replacement drug based on its ideal pharmacokinetic properties, namely, small molecular size, lipophilic in nature and with excellent blood–brain barrier (BBB) permeability. Kratom preparations have raised concerns of public health and safety in the US. Investigation into the demographics, perceived beneficial and detrimental effects of Kratom as well as common doses and purposes of its use are important to properly evaluate its potential health impact. An anonymous cross-sectional online survey was conducted in October 2016 of 10,000 current Kratom users through available social media and online resources from the American Kratom Association. A total of 8049 respondents completed the survey. Kratom is primarily used by a middle-aged (31–50 years), middle-income (\35,000 and above) population for purposes of self-treating pain (68%) and emotional or mental conditions (66%). Kratom preparations present with a dose-dependent effect with negative effects, which were primarily gastrointestinal related including nausea and constipation, mainly presenting at high (5 g or more/dose) and more frequent (22 or more doses/week) dosing. Kratom shows a dose-dependent opioid-like effect providing self-reported perceived beneficial effects in alleviating pain and relieving mood disorders. Kratom was primarily used for self-treatment of pain, mood disorders, and withdrawal symptoms associated with prescription opioid use. Plant-based drugs of abuse are as old as recorded human history. Although traditional addictive substances, such as opium, cannabis and coca, have been controlled by the United Nations anti-drug conventions, many, if not most, natural plants with addictive or abuse liability remain elusive. Therefore, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) has warned the emerging threat from new psychoactive substances (NPS), which are mostly derived or modified from the constituents of natural origin. For example, synthetic cannabinoids and synthetic cathinones are derived from the cannabis and khat plant, respectively. In this review, we briefly discussed the chemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of five common NPS of natural origin, i.e., khat, kratom, salvia, magic mushroom and mandrake. Through the review, we hope that professionals and general public alike can pay more attention to the potential problems caused by natural NPS, and suitable control measures will be taken. Two cases of fatalities are reported of which the recreational use of Mitragyna speciosa (“kratom”) could be confirmed. One of these cases presents with one of the highest postmortem mitragynine concentrations published to date. Our results show that even extremely high mitragynine blood concentrations following the consumption of kratom do not necessarily have to be the direct cause of death in such fatalities as a result of an acute overdose. The two cases are compared with regard to the differences in mitragynine concentrations detected and the role of mitragynine in the death of the subjects. Irrespective of the big differences in mitragynine concentrations in the postmortem blood samples, mitragynine was not the primary cause of death in either of the two cases reported here. Additionally, by rough estimation, a significant difference in ratio of mitragynine to its diastereomers in the blood and urine samples between the two cases could be seen. A rising awareness of natural products with hallucinogenic properties and their potential for abuse in recent years has led to the wider introduction of traditionally used medicines to the Western world. Among them are three plant extracts that present various medicinal properties. Extracts from Salvia divinorum (Diviner’s sage), Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom), and Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis (Ayahuasca) have gained interest both among public health and legal officials due to increased reports of their use for recreational purposes. There are confirmed active ingredients in each of these extracts that have been investigated further in vitro and in vivo as well as in human trials for both their potential medicinal benefits and their abuse potential. Salvinorin A from S. divinorum presents as a nonnitrogenous kappa opioid receptor agonist with potential applications for inflammation, pain, and depressive disorders. Mitragynine from M. speciosa has shown both opioid receptor and sympathomimetic activities and may provide applications in the treatment of pain and a variety of CNS disorders. N,N-Dimethyltryptamine from P. viridis, in combination with monoamine oxidase inhibitors from B. caapi, has long been useful in treating substance use disorders as well as depressive and anxiety afflictions. This chapter provides an overview of the mechanisms of action, structure-activity relationship, and current knowledge of the potential clinical applications of each extract and their respective active constituents and derivatives. In contrast to drugs for therapeutic use, there are only few data available concerning interactions between P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and drugs of abuse (DOA). In this work, interactions between structurally diverse DOA and P-gp were investigated using different strategies. First, the effect on the P-gp ATPase activity was studied by monitoring of ATP consumption after addition to recombinant, human P-gp. Second, DOA showing an increased ATP consumption were further characterized regarding their transport across filter grown Caco-2- monolayers. Analyses were performed by luminescence and liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry, respectively. Among the nine DOA initially screened, benzedrone, diclofensine, glaucine, JWH-200, MDBC, WIN-55,212-2 showed an increase of ATP consumption in the ATPase stimulation assay. In Caco-2 transport studies, Glaucine, JWH-200, mitragynine, WIN-55,212-2 could moreover be identified as non-transported substrates, but inhibitors of P-gp activity. Thus, drug–drug or drug–food interactions should be very likely for these compounds. Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) is a traditional medicinal plant widely used in Southeast Asia for its opioid-like effects. Although kratom produces analgesia through binding of mitragynine and other alkaloids at the mu-opioid receptor (MOR), the association of long-term kratom use with adverse opioid-like effects remains unknown. Aim of the study: To determine the self-reported prevalence and severity of opioid-related adverse effects after kratom initiation in a cohort of illicit opioid users. A total of 163 illicit opioid users with current kratom use history were recruited through convenience sampling from the northern states of Peninsular Malaysia. Face-to-face interviews were conducted using a semi-structured questionnaire. Respondents were all males, majority Malays (94%, n = 154/163), with a mean age of 37.10 years (SD = 10.9). Most were single (65%, n = 106/163), had 11 years of education (52%, n = 85/163) and employed (88%, n = 144/163). Half reported using kratom for over >6 years (50%, n = 81/163), and 41% consumed >3 glasses of kratom daily (n = 67/163). Results from Chi-square analysis showed kratom initiation was associated with decreased prevalence of respiratory depression, constipation, physical pain, insomnia, depression, loss of appetite, craving, decreased sexual performance, weight loss and fatigue. Our findings indicate that kratom initiation (approximately 214.29 mg of mitragynine) was associated with significant decreases in the prevalence and severity of opioid adverse effects. Kratom, a Southeast Asian plant with opioid-receptor mediated effects, has emerged as a potential substance of abuse, with limited data on its use and effects. This study characterized kratom user demographics, use patterns, and perceived drug effects. A cross-sectional, anonymous online survey was conducted between January and December 2017. 2,798 kratom users – mean age 40 (SD = 12); predominantly White (90 %), female (61 %), and located in the US (97 %) – completed the survey. Kratom was primarily taken orally in doses of 1−3 g (49 %), with daily use (59 %) being most common. Kratom was used for pain (91 %), anxiety (67 %), and depression (65 %), with high ratings of effectiveness. 1,144 (41 %) used kratom to stop or reduce prescription or illicit opioid use, citing decreased opioid withdrawal and craving related to kratom use, with 411 reporting >1-year continuous abstinence from opioids attributed to kratom use. Roughly one-third of respondents reported adverse effects of kratom, largely rated as mild in severity and lasting ≤24 h. Seventeen participants (0.6 %) sought treatment for adverse effects. Fifty-six individuals (2 %) met DSM-5 criteria for a past-year moderate or severe kratom-related substance use disorder (SUD). When asked how troubled they felt regarding their kratom use, the mean (SD) rating was 3.2 (9.8) on a scale from 0 to 100. Kratom is used among White, middle-aged Americans for symptoms of pain, anxiety, depression, and opioid withdrawal. Although regular use was typical, kratom-related SUD and serious adverse effects were uncommon. Additional research on kratom epidemiology and pharmacology is imperative in light of the present opioid epidemic. Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) or kratom is a medicinal plant indigenous to Southeast Asia. The leaf of M. speciosa is used as a remedy in pain management including cancer related pain, in a similar way as opioids and cannabis. Despite its well-known analgesic effect, there is a scarce of information on the cancer-suppressing potential of M. speciosa and its active constituents. To assess the potential applicability of M. speciosa alkaloids (mitragynine, speciociliatine or paynantheine) as chemosensitizers for cisplatin in Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) cell lines. The cytotoxic effects of the extracts, fractions and compounds were determined by conducting in vitro cytotoxicity assays. Based on the cytotoxic screening, the alkaloid extract of M. speciosa exhibited potent inhibitory effect on the NPC cell line NPC/HK1, and therefore, was chosen for further fractionation and purification. NPC cell lines NPC/HK1 and C666-1 were treated with combinations of cisplatin and M. speciosa alkaloids combinations in 2D monolayer culture. The effect of cisplatin and mitragynine as a combination on cell migration was tested using in vitro wound healing and spheroid invasion assays. In our bioassay guided isolation, both methanolic and alkaloid extracts showed mild to moderate cytotoxic effect against the NPC/HK1 cell line. Both NPC cell lines (NPC/HK1 and C666-1) were insensitive to single agent and combination treatments of the M. speciosa alkaloids. However, mitragynine and speciociliatine sensitized the NPC/HK1 and C666-1 cells to cisplatin at ~4- and >$5-fold, respectively in 2D monolayer culture. The combination of mitragynine and cisplatin also significantly inhibited cell migration of the NPC cell lines. Similarly, the combination also of mitragynine and cisplatin inhibited growth and invasion of NPC/HK1 spheroids in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, the spheroids did not rapidly develop resistance to the drug combinations at higher concentrations over 10 days. Our data indicate that both mitragynine and speciociliatine could be potential chemosensitizers for cisplatin. Further elucidation focusing on the drug mechanistic studies and in vivo studies are necessary to support delineate the therapeutic applicability of M. speciosa alkaloids for NPC treatment. Kratom or its main alkaloid, mitragynine is derived from the plant Mitragyna speciosa Korth which is indigenous to Southeast Asian countries. This substance has become widely available in other countries like Europe and United States due to its opium- and coca-like effects. In this article, we have reviewed available reports on mitragynine and other M. speciosa extracts. M. speciosa has been proven to have a rewarding effect and is effective in alleviating the morphine and ethanol withdrawal effects. However, studies in human revealed that prolonged consumption of this plant led to dependence and tolerance while cessation caused a series of aversive withdrawal symptoms. Findings also showed that M. speciosa extracts possess antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory, anti-depressant, and muscle relaxant properties. Available evidence further supports the adverse effects of M. speciosa preparations, mitragynine on cognition. Pharmacological activities are mainly mediated via opioid receptors as well as neuronal Ca2+ channels, expression of cAMP and CREB protein and via descending monoaminergic system. Physicochemical properties of mitragynine have been documented which may further explain the variation in pharmacological responses. In summary, current researchs on its main indole alkaloid, mitragynine suggest both therapeutic and addictive potential but further research on its molecular effects is needed. Mitragyna speciosa Korth., is a controversial plant that possesses various medicinal values and has been used from time immemorial in folk medicine. Recently, it has been widely abused as a narcotic source. The aim of the present study was to characterize the in vitro nitric oxide (NO) inhibition property of the supercritical CO2 fluid extracts from M. speciosa leaves and to identify the chemical constituents of the extract that exhibited the most inhibition without toxicity effect. Samples were extracted using the green technology, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) technique via CO2 as the mobile phase. The NO inhibitory activity was evaluated by Griess assay, which measures the formation of nitrite ion (NO2−) in recombinant mouse interferon gamma/lipopolysaccharide (IFN-γ/LPS) stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. Matrix 5 Step-1 (M5S1) that was extracted with pure CO2 at 3000 psi and 60 °C exhibited the highest NO inhibitory activity (60.08%) without cytotoxicity (cell viability, 91.98%) at a concentration of 100 μg/mL. GC and GC–MS analysis revealed palmitic acid as the major constituent (34.90%) of M5S1. This study provides first evidence that M5S1, the non-alkaloidal extract obtained by supercritical fluid extraction of M. speciosa leaves possesses potential property in preventing inflammatory diseases mediated by excessive production of NO.
565. E. J. Shellard and P. Shadan, “The Mitragyna Species of Ghana. the Anatomy of the Leaves of Mitragyna Stipulosa (d.c.) O. Kuntze and Mitragyna Ciliata Aubr. Et Pellegr,” The Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, vol. 15, pp. SUPPL 278–291, Dec. 1963.
566. E. J. Shellard and P. Shadan, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia Iii the Anatomy of the Leaves of Mitragyna Rotundfolia (Roxb.) O. Kuntze,” Planta Medica, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 213–221, Jun. 1964. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1100171. Abstract
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567. E. J. Shellard and J. D. Phillipson, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia Ii. the Alkaloids of the Leaves of Mitragyna Parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth.1,” Planta Medica, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 160–165, Jun. 1964. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1100162. Abstract
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568. E. J. Shellard and J. D. Phillipson, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia I. the Alkaloids of the Leaves of Mitragyna Rotundifolia (Roxb.) O. Kuntze1,” Planta Medica, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 27–32, Mar. 1964. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1100146. Abstract
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569. E. J. Shellard and M. D. Lees, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia V – The Anatomy of the Leaves of Mitragyna Speciosa Korth.,” Planta Medica, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 280–290, Aug. 1965. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1100122. Abstract
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570. E. J. Shellard, A. H. Beckett, P. Tantivatana, J. D. Phillipson, and C. M. Lee, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia VIII. The Alkaloids of the Leaves of Mitragyna Javanica Var. Microphylla Koord and Valeton,” Planta Medica, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 245–254, Aug. 1967. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1099979. Abstract
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571. E. J. Shellard, P. Tantivatana, and A. H. Beckett, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia X. The Alkaloids of the Leaves of Mitragyna Hirsuta Havil,” Planta Medica, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 366–370, Nov. 1967. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1099996.
572. E. J. Shellard and M. Wright, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia IX. The Anatomy of the Leaves of Mitragyna Parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth,” Planta Medica, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 323–336, Aug. 1967. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1099990. Abstract
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573. E. J. Shellard, J. D. Phillipson, and D. Gupta, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia XI. The Alkaloids of the Leaves of Mitragyna Parvifolia (R Oxb.) Korth. Obtained from the Maharashtra State of India,” Planta Medica, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 20–28, Feb. 1968. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1099876.
574. E. Shellard, J. Phillipson, and D. Gupta, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia XIII. The Alkaloids of the Leaves of Mitragyna Parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. Obtained from India,” Planta Medica, vol. 16, no. 04, pp. 436–445, Dec. 1968. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1099932.
575. E. J. Shellard and M. D. Walker, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia XVI. The Morphology and Anatomy of the Flowers and Fruits of Mitragyna Speciosa,” Planta Medica, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 245–260, Aug. 1969. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1099854. Abstract
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576. E. J. Shellard, J. D. Phillipson, and D. Gupta, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia XV. The Alkaloids from the Bark of Mitragyna Parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth and a Possible Biogenetic Route for the Oxindole Alkaloids,” Planta Medica, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 146–163, May 1969. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1099840.
577. E. J. Shellard, J. D. Phillipson, and D. Gupta, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia XIV. The Alkaloids of the Leaves of Mitragyna Parvifolia Obtained from Burma, Cambodia and Ceylon,” Planta Medica, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 51–58, Feb. 1969. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1099827. Abstract
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578. E. J. Shellard and P. J. Houghton, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia XIX. The Alkaloid Pattern in Mitragyna Parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth,” Planta Medica, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 82–89, Jul. 1971. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1099669.
579. E. J. Shellard and P. J. Houghton, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia XXII. The Distribution of Alkaloids in Young Plants of Mitragyna Parvifolia Grown from Seeds Obtained from Uttar Pradesh State of India,” Planta Medica, vol. 22, no. 1, pp. 97–102, Aug. 1972. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1099589.
580. E. J. Shellard and P. J. Houghton, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia XX. The Alkaloidal Pattern in Mitragyna Parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. from Burma,” Planta Medica, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 263–266, May 1972. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1099550.
581. E. J. Shellard and P. J. Houghton, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia XXI. The Distribution of Alkaloids in Young Plants of Mitragyna Parvifolia Grown from Seed Obtained from Ceylon,” Planta Medica, vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 382–392, Jun. 1972. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1099568.
582. E. J. Shellard and P. J. Houghton, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia XXIV. The Isolation of Dihydrocorynantheol and Corynantheidol from the Leaves of Mitragyna Parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth from Sri Lanka (Ceylon),” Planta Medica, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 13–17, Aug. 1973. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1099465.
583. E. J. Shellard and D. Rungsiyakul, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia XXIII. The Alkaloids of the Leaves of Mitragyna Tubulosa (Havil),” Planta Medica, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 221–225, May 1973. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1099436.
584. E. J. Shellard and P. J. Houghton, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia XXV. ’In Vivo’ Studies, Using 14C-Alkaloids, in the Alkaloidal Pattern in Young Plants of Mitragyna Parvifolia Grown from Seed Obtained from Ceylon,” Planta Medica, vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 341–352, Dec. 1973. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1099508.
585. E. J. Shellard and P. J. Houghton, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia Xxvi. Further ’in Vivo’ Studies Using 14c-Alkaloids, in the Alkaloidal Pattern in Young Plants of Mitragyna Parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth Grown from Seed Obtained from Sri Lanka (Ceylon),” Planta Medica, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 80–87, Feb. 1974. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1097917.
586. E. J. Shellard and P. J. Houghton, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia XXVII. The Alkaloidal N-Oxides in the Leaves of Mitragyna Parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. from Sri Lanka,” Planta Medica, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 172–174, Mar. 1974. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1097928. Abstract
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587. E. J. Shellard and P. K. Lala, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia XXIX The Alkaloidal Pattern in the Leaves, Stem Bark and Root Bark of Mitragyna Parvifolia from the Kerala State, India,” Planta Medica, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 395–399, Jun. 1977. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1097549. Abstract
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588. E. J. Shellard, P. J. Houghton, and M. Resha, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia XXXII: The Distribution of Alkaloids in Young Plants of Mitragyna Speciosa KORTH Grown from Seed Obtained from Thailand,” Planta Medica, vol. 34, no. 7, pp. 253–263, Nov. 1978. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1097448. Abstract
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589. E. J. Shellard, P. J. Houghton, and M. Resha, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia XXXI The Alkaloids of Mitragyna Speciosa Korth from Thailand,” Planta Medica, vol. 34, no. 5, pp. 26–36, Aug. 1978. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1097410. Abstract
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590. E. J. Shellard, P. J. Houghton, and M. Resha, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia XXX: Oxidation Products of Mitragynine and Speciociliatine,” Planta Medica, vol. 33, no. 3, pp. 223–227, May 1978. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1097379. Abstract
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591. E. J. Shellard and A. Wade, “The Morphology and Anatomy of the Flowers of Mitragyna Ciliata Aubr. et Pellegr. and Mitragyna Stipulosa (D.C.) O. Kuntze,” Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, vol. 19, no. 11, pp. 744–759, 1967. doi: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1967.tb08027.x. Abstract
     The morphology and detailed anatomy of the flowers of Mitragyna ciliata Aubr. et Pellegr. and Mitragyna stipulosa (D.C.) O. Kuntze have been described. Although the histological features are almost identical, the two species can be differentiated by the morphology of their calices.
592. E. J. Shellard, J. D. Phillipson, and K. Sarpong, “N-Oxides of the Oxindole Alkaloids Rhynchophylline and Isorhynchophylline,” Xenobiotica, vol. 1, no. 4-5, pp. 455–456, Jan. 1971. doi: 10.3109/00498257109041510.
593. E. J. Shellard and M. Z. Alam, “The Quantitative Determination of Some Mitragyna Oxindole Alkaloids – Part. I Ultra Violet Spectrophotometry,” Planta Medica, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 127–136, May 1968. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1099890. Abstract
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594. E. J. Shellard, J. D. Phillipson, and K. Sarpong, “Rhynchophylline and Isorhynchophylline N-Oxides from Species of Mitragyna,” Phytochemistry, vol. 10, no. 10, pp. 2505–2511, Oct. 1971. doi: 10.1016/S0031-9422(00)89897-0. Abstract
     The ’base-line’ alkaloid previously isolated from leaves of Mitragyna rotundifolia (Roxb.) O. Kuntze and Mitragyna inermis (Willd.) O. Kuntze, has been identified as isorhynchophylline N-oxide. Rhynchophylline N-oxide has also been isolated from the leaves of M. inermis.
595. C. F. Silv, R. F. Schwan, E. S. Sousa Dias, and A. E. Wheals, “Microbial Diversity during Maturation and Natural Processing of Coffee Cherries of Coffea Arabica in Brazil,” International Journal of Food Microbiology, vol. 60, no. 2-3, pp. 251–260, Sep. 2000. doi: 10.1016/s0168-1605(00)00315-9. Abstract
     The magnitude and diversity of the microbial population associated with dry (natural) processing of coffee (Coffea arabica) has been assessed during a 2-year period on 15 different farms in the Sul de Minas region of Brazil. Peptone water-washed samples were taken of maturing cherries on trees (cherries, raisins and dried cherries) and from ground fermentations. The microbial load varied from 3 x 10(4) to 2.2 x 10(9) cfu/cherry with a median value of 1.6 x 10(7) cfu/cherry. The microbial load increased after heavy rainfall on cherries that were drying on the ground. At all stages, bacteria were usually the most abundant group, followed by filamentous fungi and finally yeasts. Counts of bacteria, yeasts and fungi varied considerably between farms and at different stages of maturation and processing and no consistent pattern could be seen. Yeasts showed an increase during the fermentation process. Median counts were not significantly different for fungi, yeasts and bacteria between the 2 years although Gram-negative bacteria dominated in the wet year and Gram-positive bacteria dominated in the dry year. Of a total of 754 isolates, 626 were identified to at least genus level comprising 44 genera and 64 different species. The 164 isolates of Gram-negative bacteria included 17 genera and 26 species, the most common of which were members of the genera Aeromonas, Pseudomonas, Enterobacter and Serratia. Of 191 isolates of Gram-positive bacteria, 23 were spore-forming and included six Bacillus species, and 118 were non-spore-formers of which over half were Cellulomonas with lesser numbers of Arthrobacter, Microbacterium, Brochothrix, Dermabacter and Lactobacillus. Of the 107 yeast isolates, 90 were identified into 12 genera and 24 different species and almost all were fermentative. The most common genera, in decreasing frequency, were Pichia, Candida, Arxula and Saccharomycopsis. There were many rarely described yeasts including Pichia lynferdii and Arxula adeninivorans. Almost all 292 fungal isolates were identified to genus level and 52 were identified to species level. Cladosporium, Fusarium and Penicillium each comprised about one third of the isolates and were found on all farms. Only 3% of the isolates were Aspergillus. Beauvaria, Monilia, Rhizoctonia and Arthrobotrys species were also occasionally found. The microbial flora is much more varied and complex than found in wet fermentations. The genera and species identified include members known to have all types of pectinase and cellulase activities.
596. E. A. A. da Silva, “Coffee (Coffea Arabica Cv. Rubi) Seed Germination: Mechanisms and Regulation,” PhD thesis, S.l., 2002. https://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/wurpubs/122791. Abstract

     Coffee seeds display slow and variable germination which severely hampers the production of seedlings for planting in the following growth season. Little work has been done with the aim to understand the behavior of coffee seeds during germination and there is a lack of information concerning the regulation of the germination process. This thesis addresses questions concerning the mechanism and regulation of coffee seed germination.

     Initial experiments showed that radicle protrusion in the dark at 30 °C was initiated at around day 5 of imbibition. At day 10, 50% of the seed population displayed radicle protrusion and at day 15 most of the seeds had completed germination. The water uptake by the coffee seeds followed a common triphasic pattern as described for many other species (Chapter 2 and 3). During imbibition the coffee embryo grew inside the endosperm. The cotyledons increased in length by 35% and the axis by 40%, resulting in the appearance of a protuberance in the endosperm cap region. There was an increase in the embryo pressure potential up to day 5 of imbibition followed by a release of turgor thereafter, indicating relaxation of embryonic cell walls (Chapter 3). Light microscopy demonstrated that the cells of the embryonic axis displayed isodiametric growth (swelling) at the beginning of the imbibition process followed by both isodiametric and longitudinal growth later during imbibition. The isodiametric growth coincided with a random orientation of the microtubules whereas longitudinal growth was accompanied by a transversal orientation. Accumulation ofb-tubulin, an increase in the number of 4C nuclei and DNA replication were evident during imbibition. These cell cycle events coincided with the growth of the embryo and the appearance of cell division prior to radicle protrusion. However, cell division was not a pre-requisite for radicle protrusion in coffee seeds (Chapter 5).

     The endosperm of the coffee seeds possesses polygonal and rectangular cell types located in different parts of the endosperm. The endosperm cap cells have smaller and thinner cell walls than the rest of the endosperm, suggesting that the region where the radicle will protrude is predestined in coffee seed. Low temperature scanning microscopy revealed that during imbibition cells in the endosperm cap became compressed which was followed by a loss of cell integrity, appearance of a protuberance and occurrence of cell wall porosity (Chapter 3). As in many other species, the hemi-cellulose fraction of endosperm cell walls of coffee seeds consists mainly of mannans and galacto-mannans. These polysaccharides are commonly deposited in the cell walls as food reserve. Upon germination, these galacto-mannans are degraded through the action of hydrolytic enzymes, including endo-b-mannanase,b-mannosidase anda-galactosidase resulting in a weakening of the cell walls. The coffee endosperm cap weakens in two steps: cellulase activity correlated with the first step and endo-b-mannanase activity with the second step. Endo-b-mannanase activity appeared first in the endosperm cap and only later in the rest of the endosperm, and coincided with a decrease in the required puncture force and appearance of cell wall porosity. Different isoforms of endo-b-mannanase were found in the endosperm cap and in the rest of the endosperm. The activity ofb-mannosidase increased predominantly in the endosperm cap. However, low levels of endo-b-mannanase andb-mannosidase activities were also observed in the rest of the endosperm and in the embryo prior to radicle protrusion (Chapter 3 and 6). Two partial length cDNA clones encoding for endo-b-mannanase andb-mannosidase, respectively, were isolated from coffee endosperm caps. The deduced amino acid sequences exhibited high homology with those of other endo-b-mannanases andb-mannosidases from plants (Chapter 6).

     Abscisic acid (ABA) inhibited germination of coffee seeds but not their water uptake, isodiametric growth, increase in 4C nuclei and DNA synthesis in the embryo cells. In the endosperm cap ABA inhibited the second step of endosperm cap weakening, presumably by inhibiting the activities of at least two endo-b-mannanase isoforms. However, ABA had no effect on endo-b-mannanase activity in the rest of the endosperm or on cellulase activity. Two peaks of endogenous ABA occurred in the embryo cells during germination. The first peak was observed at day 2 of imbibition and the second (smaller) peak at day 5 of imbibition. The occurrence of these ABA peaks coincided with the increase in the embryo growth potential and the second step of endosperm cap weakening, which makes these processes possible targets of ABA action (Chapter 3).

     Exogenous gibberellin (GA \textsubscript4+7 ) \textsubscript inhibited coffee seed germination. The response to GA \textsubscript4+7 showed two sensitivity thresholds: a lower one between 0 and 1mM and a higher one between 10 and 100mM. However, it was shown that radicle protrusion of coffee seeds depended on de novo synthesis of GAs. Endogenous GAs were required for embryo cell elongation and the second step of endosperm cap weakening. Incubation of seeds in exogenous GA \textsubscript4+7 resulted in a loss of embryo viability and the occurrence of dead cells, as observed by low temperature scanning microscopy. We suggest that the inhibition of germination by exogenous GAs is caused by factors that are released from the endosperm cap during or after its weakening. Exogenous GAs greatly accelerated the degradation of the endosperm cap. Factors that are involved in (normal) programmed cell death of the endosperm may reach the embryo during germination, causing cell death in the embryonic axis and, hence, inhibition of radicle protrusion. The results presented in this thesis show that coffee seed germination is controlled both by embryo growth and the second step of endosperm cap weakening (Chapter 4).

     Finally, the sequence of events during coffee seed germination and their interrelationships are presented and discussed (Chapter 7). The events occurring in embryo and endosperm all followed a two-phase pattern. The first phase occurred during the first 5 days of imbibition and the second phase thereafter, until radicle protrusion. The results make clear that the germination processes are temporally and spatially coordinated and that disturbance of this coordination, as in the presence of GAs, may severely affect seed behaviour.

597. S. da Silva and S. Astolfi Filho, “Effect of Indolebutyric Acid on in Vitro Root Production of Psychotria Ipecacuanha (Brot.) Stokes (Rubiaceae),” 2018. https://www.arca.fiocruz.br/handle/icict/30335. Abstract
     Psychotria ipecacuanha (Brot.) Stokes (Rubiaceae) is a medicinal plant commonly known as ipecac, which contains two alkaloids of high pharmacological value (emetine and cephaeline) with anti-diarrheal, amebicidal, expectorant and anti-inflammatory properties. The risk of extinction and the difficulty of the conventional cultivation of the species combined with great market demand has generated a need for studies of cultivation methods that allow the economic exploitation of this species. This work presents data on the development of an in vitro root culture protocol for P. ipecacuanha. Leaf, nodal, internodal and root segments were used, which were introduced in culture media containing different concentrations (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0 mg.mL-1) of indolbutyric acid (IBA). The best treatment for root formation included the use of nodal segments in culture media containing 2.5 and 3.0 mg.mL-1 of IBA, which gave rise to 100% root formation at 60 days of culture. Regarding the number of roots per explant, the best result (13:1) were obtained with the use of internodal segments in medium supplemented with 2.5 mg.mL-1 IBA and, the best root length was obtained in root segments developed in medium enriched with 1.5 mg.mL-1 IBA, with an average increment of 0.87 cm per root.
598. S. da Silva, D. C. Alencar, P. J. C. Benevides, and S. Astolfi-Filho, “Emetine and Cephaeline Production and Regulation by in Vitro Propagation of Psychotria Ipecacuanha (Brot.) Stokes in Semi-Solid Media and Temporary Immersion Bioreactor,” Revista Fitos, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 45–55, Mar. 2020. doi: 10.32712/2446-4775.2020.799. Abstract
     Psychotria ipecacuanha, is a plant species with known medicinal properties that is critically endangered due to overexploitation of natural populations. Although the difficulties in conventional propagation by seed and by vegetative propagation are generally understood, the present study enhances our knowledge by describing efficient plant regeneration and root induction protocols forP. ipecacuanha while comparing alkaloid content (emetine and cephaeline) inin vitro-derived tissues. Stem node explants were cultured on MS medium MS supplemented with indolbutiric acid (IBA) in semi-solid media and the RITA® temporary immersion bioreactor. The highest root formation (81%) was in MS + 1.5mgL−1IBA in the bioreactor. After 24 months of acclimatization, the plants cultivated in MS + 0.50 and 1.0 mg L-1 of IBA had the highest number of roots (3), with mean values of 10.47 and 9.40 cm, respectively. The cultures coming from 1.0 mg L−1 and 0.5 mg L−1 IBA in the bioreactor contained higher cephaeline content, with a relative area of 14.2 and 14.9%, respectively. For emetine, the 1.0 mg L−1 IBA cultures in the bioreactor, 0.5 mg L−1 IBA and MS0 cultures contained higher content than the other treatments, with a relative area of 10.2, 10.2 and 10.1%, respectively.
599. E. A. A. da Silva et al., “Gene Expression during the Germination of Coffee Seed,” Journal of Seed Science, vol. 41, pp. 168–179, Jul. 2019. doi: 10.1590/2317-1545v41n2208263. Abstract
     Abstract: Germination of the coffee (Coffea arabica L.) seed is the result of events that occur simultaneously in the embryo and endosperm. To understand the molecular mechanisms responsible for these events, we undertook a transcriptome analysis of embryo, micropylar and lateral endosperms from 10-day-imbibed seeds. The sequencing yielded contigs coding for 16,813 proteins. From those, 14,005 (~ 83%) were highly similar to at least one protein sequence in the nr database. 162 genes were significantly expressed in the embryo, 36 in the micropylar endosperm and 72 in the lateral endosperm. The tissue specificity analysis of the significantly expressed genes showed that the embryo had the highest proportion of specific genes (113/162, ~70%), while 11 were expressed in the micropylar and lateral endosperms. In the embryo, genes were mainly associated with abiotic stress, cell growth, and intercellular communication. In the micropylar and lateral endosperms, they were associated with abiotic stress and cell wall degradation. The accuracy of RNA-seq data was confirmed by RT-qPCR. This work adds new information about the molecular mechanism involved in coffee seed germination.
600. C. A. da Silva, E. A. Santos, A. P. Viana, J. R. M. Dias, and F. L. Partelli, “Genetic Diversity in Coffea Canephora Genotypes for Leaf Nutrient Concentration,” Revista de la Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias UNCuyo, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 22–34, Jul. 2021. doi: 10.48162/rev.39.003. Abstract
     This study analyzed the genetic diversity in Coffea canephora genotypes by univariate and multivariate statistical analysis, based on concentrations of macro- and micronutrients in coffee leaves in the stages of pre-flowering and grain filling. The experiment was arranged in randomized blocks with three replications, in a 42x2 factorial design, in which factor one represented the evaluated genotypes and factor two the periods of leaf sampling, i.e., pre-flowering and grain filling. The data of leaf nutrient concentrations were subjected to analysis of variance by the F test (p <0.01), and genetic parameters were estimated. For the study of genetic diversity, the genotypes were grouped by the hierarchical unweighted pair-group method using arithmetic averages (UPGMA). The relative importance of a trait to predict genetic diversity was also studied. There is genetic divergence for leaf nutrient concentration in C. canephora genotypes. With a maximum limit of 60% of dissimilarity between genotypes, four groups were also formed by UPGMA. For the 42 evaluated genotypes, leaf S concentration was the most important trait for genetic diversity; this genotypic variability should be investigated to enhance the efficiency of nutritional diagnosis. Highlights There is genetic variability for leaf nutrient concentration in Coffea canephora The leaf concentration of nutrients in the phenological stage of pre-anthesis is different from the leaf concentration of nutrients in the coffee bean filling period. Leaf concentration of sulfur was the characteristic that contributed most to the genetic diversity among the 42 genotypes, followed by the concentration of copper, boron and magnesium. Genotypic variability for leaf nutrient concentration should be considered for better nutritional management.
601. M. L. da Silva, A. A. Azevedo, G. M. da Silva, I. F. de Carvalho, A. A. B. Rossi, and W. C. Otoni, “Germinação in vitro e organogênese direta em explantes hipocotiledonares com polaridade invertida de Psychotria ipecacuanha (Brot.) Stokes,” 2014. https://www.arca.fiocruz.br/handle/icict/19211. Abstract
     Este trabalho visou à germinação e à regeneração adventícia in vitro de brotos a partir de hipocótilos invertidos de Psychotria ipecacuanha. Os resultados demonstraram um percentual de 84,17% de sementes germinadas com desenvolvimento normal das plântulas. A germinação iniciou-se após o segundo dia de cultivo sendo observada até aos 70 dias. Após 40 dias de cultivo foram obtidas plântulas com ± 10 cm, respondendo satisfatoriamente ao processo de aclimatização, sob condições de laboratório. Nos hipocótilos com polaridade invertida formaram-se brotos adventícios por via direta do tecido do explante, na região de contato com o meio de cultura, em vários estádios de desenvolvimento e na porção do hipocótilo fora de contato com o meio. A utilização de hipocótilos com a polaridade invertida ainda não foi reportada para a espécie. A organogênese ocorreu de forma direta nos explantes de P. ipecacuanha e a concentração de 1 mg L-1 BA favoreceu a indução de maior número de brotações adventícias. A análise anatômica dos brotos adventícios confirmou a origem dessas brotações por organogênese direta. Brotos adventícios alongados foram enraizados na presença de AIB. O maior percentual de enraizamento das brotações ocorreu na presença de 1,5 mg L-1 do regulador.
602. L. Silva and L. Bravo, “Possible Therapeutics Effects of Ayahuasca, a Psychedelic Compound,” European Psychiatry, vol. 65, no. S1, pp. S871–S872, Jun. 2022. doi: 10.1192/j.eurpsy.2022.2260. Abstract
     IntroductionAyahuasca is an hallucinogenic tea prepared from the Amazonian vine Banisteriopsis caapi and the leaves of the plant Psychotria Viridis. Banisteriopsis caapi contains monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAO) that render the N, N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) of Psychotria Viridis active. This brew is being used as a sacrament in syncretic religions in urban areas of Brazil and worldwide with the purpose of enabling a spiritual experience as well as healing for a variety of conditions such as drug addiction, depression and anxiety disorders.ObjectivesThis work aims to provide an understanding on the potential benefits of ayahuasca in psychiatric symptoms, as well as its neuropsychological functioning, neuroimaging and adverse events.MethodsA non-systematic review was performed on PubMed database and Google Scholar, using the key words “Ayahuasca, Drug Addiction, Psychedelics, DMT, Neuroplasticity”. The review included experimental studies in humans, observational studies, systemic review articles and clinical trials.ResultsIn a randomized placebo-controlled trial, ayahuasca had a significant antidepressant effect when compared to the placebo group. Long term ayahuasca usage was associated with structural alterations in the medial parts of the brain with no evidence of increased psychopathology or worse neuropsychological functioning. According to reviewed studies the incident of prolonged psychotic reaction among ayahuasca users is rare and the causal relation with ayahuasca is sometimes difficult to establish.ConclusionsDespite the promising results, more controlled double-blinded studies with larger populations are necessary to better understand the therapeutic potentials and side effects of ayahuasca.DisclosureNo significant relationships.
603. F.-D. Silva, L. Hermoso-Gallardo, and A. Menéndez-Yuffá, “Primary and Secondary Somatic Enbryogenesis in Leaf Sections and Cell Suspensins of Coffea Arabica Cv. Catimor,” Interciencia, vol. 30, no. 11, pp. 694–698, 2005. http://ve.scielo.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0378-18442005001100008. Abstract
     The main purpose of this research was to characterize and optimize the development of secondary somatic embryos in coffee (Coffea arabica cv. Catimor). In addition, as the primary somatic embryos formation is the previous stage to the differentiation of secondary somatic embryos, three methods for its induction were compared: 1) solid media in two stages, first in a medium with 4.5µM of 2,4-dichlorophenoxiacetic acid (2,4-D) and 35µM of benzyladenin (BA) and then in a medium with 4.3µM naphtaleneacetic acid, 2) solid media with 4.4-53.3µM BA in one stage, and 3) suspension cultures. In the latter treatment the callus was formed in two stages of solid media, one containing 9.3µM of kinetin and 2.3µM of 2,4-D, and a second one with 22.2µM of BA, and a third liquid medium with 35µM of BA. All the treatments induced primary and secondary somatic embryogenesis. The highest yield of somatic embryos was obtained in suspension cultures. The secondary somatic embryos differentiated directly from epidermal and subepidermal cells of the hypocotilar zone of the primary somatic embryos.
604. E. A. Silva, F. M. DaMatta, C. Ducatti, A. J. Regazzi, and R. S. Barros, “Seasonal Changes in Vegetative Growth and Photosynthesis of Arabica Coffee Trees,” Field Crops Research, vol. 89, no. 2, pp. 349–357, Oct. 2004. doi: 10.1016/j.fcr.2004.02.010. Abstract
     Seasonal changes in vegetative growth, leaf gas exchanges, carbon isotope discrimination (Δ) and carbohydrate status were monitored in de-fruited coffee trees (Coffea arabica L.) grown in the field, from October 1998 through September 1999, in Viçosa (20°45′S, 42°15′W, 650m a.s.l.), southeastern Brazil. Of the total growth over the 12-month study period, 78% occurred in the warm, rainy season (October–March), and 22% during the cool, dry season (April–September). Throughout the active growth period, the rate of net carbon assimilation (A) averaged 8.6μmolm−2s−1, against 3.4μmolm−2s−1 during the period of reduced growth. In the active period, growth, unlike A or Δ, was strongly negatively correlated with air temperature. In contrast, growth and A were both correlated positively, and Δ correlated negatively, with air temperature during the reduced growth period. However, the depressions of A and growth might have simply run in parallel, without any causal relationship. Changes in A appeared to be largely due to stomatal limitations in the active growing season, with non-stomatal ones prevailing in the slow growth period. Foliar carbohydrates seemed not to have contributed appreciably to changes in growth rates and photosynthesis.
605. S. da Silva et al., “In Vitro Propagation of Psychotria Ipecacuanha (Brot.) Stokes under Different Concentrations of Indoleacetic Acid,” 2018. https://www.arca.fiocruz.br/handle/icict/30338. Abstract
     Psychotria ipecacuanha is a medicinal plant that is native to the Americas with the largest area of occurrence in the State of Mato Grosso in Brazil. It is critically endangered due to overexploitation of natural populations. Due to difficulties in conventional propagation, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of different concentrations of the growth regulator indoleacetic acid (IAA) on in vitro propagation of this species. Stem node explants were cultured in Murashige and Skoog medium (MS) without growth regulators (control) and supplemented with four concentrations (0.05, 0.5, 1.5 and 2.0 mg.L-1) of indoleacetic acid (IAA) in semisolid media. After 60 days of cultivation, nodal segments (n=30) grown in Murashige & Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 0.05 mg.L-1 of IAA produced on average 4.56 nodal segments per explant. The seedlings were successfully acclimatized without detection of any morphological anomalies or variation.
606. M. B. Silvarolla, P. Mazzafera, M. M. A. de Lima, H. P. Medina Filho, and L. C. Fazuoli, “Ploidy Level and Caffeine Content in Leaves of Coffea,” Scientia Agricola, vol. 56, pp. 661–663, Jul. 1999. doi: 10.1590/S0103-90161999000300021. Abstract
     Several species of Coffea and varieties of C. arabica differing in chromosome number had their caffeine content determined in the leaves. For Coffea arabica var. "Angustifolia", var. "Caturra" and var. "Icatu", it was observed caffeine decrease from the haploid (2n = 22) to tetraploid leaves (2n = 44). Caffeine in the tetraploid "Angustifolia" was decreased by 50% when compared to the haploid. Caffeine reduction was also observed in leaves of C. canephora var. "Kouilou" as chromosome number was increased (2n = 22 ® 2n = 44). In this case, caffeine in the leaves of the diploid genotype was close to 4 times higher than in the tetraploid. On the other hand it was observed an increase of the alkaloid when the chromosome number was doubled in the C. canephora var. "Robusta".
607. H. R. de O. Silveira, M. D. O. Santos, J. D. Alves, K. R. D. de Souza, C. A. Andrade, and R. G. M. Alves, “Growth Effects of Water Excess on Coffee Seedlings (Coffea Arabica L.),” Acta Scientiarum. Agronomy, vol. 36, no. 2, p. 211, Apr. 2014. doi: 10.4025/actasciagron.v36i2.17557. Abstract
     The objective of the present study was to evaluate the interference of water excess in soil on the growth of young coffee plants of the Mundo Novo and Catuaí cultivars.Plants were subjected to the following three different substrate water availability conditions: control (wellwatered), continuous substrate waterlogged, and intermittent substrate waterlogged. Several growthrelated traits were evaluated over the course of 19 weeks. Based on the number and quality of the affected variables from all forms of analyses, the Catuaí cultivar showed greater sensitivity to waterlogging. Both cultivars exhibited growth inhibition in response to substrate waterlogging stress, which was exacerbated by premature leaf dropping.
608. A. Y. Simão et al., “Determination of N,N-Dimethyltryptamine and Beta-Carbolines in Plants Used to Prepare Ayahuasca Beverages by Means of Solid-Phase Extraction and Gas-Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry,” SN Applied Sciences, vol. 2, no. 3, p. 463, Feb. 2020. doi: 10.1007/s42452-020-2296-0. Abstract
     The goal of the present work was the development of a method to determine beta-carbolines, i.e., tetrahydroharmine, harmine, and harmaline, together with N,N-dimethyltryptamine present in five different commercial tea extracts [Banisteriopsis caapi, Psychotria viridis, Peganum harmala, Mimosa tenuiflora and DC AB (commercial name)] which are used to prepare the ritualistic Ayahuasca tea beverages, that exerts psychoactive effects on the brain, due to interactions between these compounds. The analytes were extracted and preconcentrated by an optimized solid-phase extraction procedure and analysis was performed by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Also, the optimization of the solid-phase extraction procedure was accomplished by evaluating different elution solvents and different proportions. Linearity was established from 0.2 to 20 µg/mL for all compounds, except for N,N-dimethyltryptamine (0.04 to 5 µg/mL), with determination coefficients above 0.99 for all analytes. The limits of quantification achieved for N,N-dimethyltryptamine and beta carbolines were 0.04 and 0.2 µg/mL, respectively. Recoveries ranged from 44 to 79%. Lastly, intra- and inter-day precision and accuracy values were considered acceptable, in agreement with the chosen guidelines. This is the first method that determined both beta-carbolines and N,N-dimethyltryptamine present in commercially available tea extracts using GC–MS.
609. A. Y. Simão et al., “Evaluation of the Cytotoxicity of Ayahuasca Beverages,” Molecules, vol. 25, no. 23, p. 5594, Jan. 2020. doi: 10.3390/molecules25235594. Abstract
     Ayahuasca is a beverage consumed at shamanic ceremonies and currently has gained popularity on recreational scenarios. It contains beta-carboline alkaloids and N,N-dimethyltryptamine, which possesses hallucinogenic effects. Only a few studies have elicited the psychoactive effects and the dose of such compounds on neurological dopaminergic cells or animals. In this work, we aimed to study the cytotoxic effects of these compounds present in ayahuasca beverages and on five different teas (Banisteriopsis caapi, Psychotria viridis, Peganum harmala, Mimosa tenuiflora and Dc Ab (commercial name)) preparations on dopaminergic immortalized cell lines. Moreover, a characterization of the derivative alkaloids was also performed. All the extracts were characterized by chromatographic systems and the effect of those compounds in cell viability and total protein levels were analyzed in N27 dopaminergic neurons cell line. This is the first article where cytotoxicity of ayahuasca tea is studied on neurological dopaminergic cells. Overall, results showed that both cell viability and protein contents decreased when cells were exposed to the individual compounds, as well as to the teas and to the two mixtures based on the traditional ayahuasca beverages.
610. A. Y. Simão, J. Gonçalves, A. P. Duarte, M. Barroso, A. C. Cristóvão, and E. Gallardo, “Toxicological Aspects and Determination of the Main Components of Ayahuasca: A Critical Review,” Medicines, vol. 6, no. 4, p. 106, Dec. 2019. doi: 10.3390/medicines6040106. Abstract
     Ayahuasca is a psychoactive beverage prepared traditionally from a mixture of the leaves and stems of Psychotria viridis and Banisteriopsis caapi, respectively, being originally consumed by indigenous Amazonian tribes for ritual and medicinal purposes. Over the years, its use has spread to other populations as a means to personal growth and spiritual connection. Also, the recreational use of its isolated compounds has become prominent. The main compounds of this tea-like preparation are N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), β-Carbolines, and harmala alkaloids, such as harmine, tetrahydroharmine, and harmaline. The latter are monoamine-oxidase inhibitors and are responsible for DMT psychoactive and hallucinogenic effects on the central nervous system. Although consumers defend its use, its metabolic effects and those on the central nervous system are not fully understood yet. The majority of studies regarding the effects of this beverage and of its individual compounds are based on in vivo experiments, clinical trials, and even surveys. This paper will not only address the toxicological aspects of the ayahuasca compounds but also perform a comprehensive and critical review on the analytical methods available for their determination in biological and non-biological specimens, with special focus on instrumental developments and sample preparation approaches.
611. M. C. Simões-Costa, I. R. Moura, M. T. Barros, and C. J. Rodrigues Jr, “Effect of Mineral Salts, Vitamins and Gelling Agents on Somatic Embryogenesis in Coffea Arabica L.’Catuai,’” Revista de Ciências Agrárias, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 192–200, 2010. doi: 10.19084/rca.15883. Abstract
     Somatic embryogenesis was induced in leaf explants of Coffea arabica ‘Catuai’. A two steps procedure was followed: explants were first cultured in a callus induction medium containing 2,4-dichlorophenoxyace-tic acid and 6-benzylaminopurine and later transferred to an auxin free embryo induc-tion and conversion medium. The influence of three mineral salt formulations: Schenk & Hildebrandt (1972) full salt solution, Mu-rashige & Skoog (1962) full and half salt solutions; two vitamin mixtures: Gamborg et al. (1968) and Schenk & Hildebrandt (1972) and two gelling agents: agar and gelrite, was assessed. Best embryogenic response was obtained in culture medium with Schenk & Hildebrandt (1972) mineral salts, Gamborg et al. (1968) vitamins and agar. In this medium, somatic embryos were observed after 18 weeks of culture and, six weeks later, 85% of the explants presented an average of 18 somatic embryos per explant.
612. SimonAldridge, “Psychotria Colorata,” r/KratomAlternatives. Aug-2021. www.reddit.com/r/KratomAlternatives/comments/pd3ebd/psychotria_colorata/.
613. R. Sinício, “Longevity equation for coffee seeds (Coffea arabica L.).,” Engenharia na Agricultura, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 287–297, 2011. doi: 10.13083/1414-3984.v19n04a01. Abstract
     The objective of this study was to develop an equation to estimate longevity of coffee seeds using the Probit Model. Published survival curves of coffee seeds, stored under different temperatures and moisture contents, were transformed to probit and used in linear and non-linear multiple regressions to determine the coefficients of viability equations. The results showed adequate fitting in a quadratic model with a standard deviation of 8.9% germination, compared to 15.1% in the traditional model. The non-linear regression compared to the multiple linear regression, gave lower (1.5 to 2.2 times) standard deviation to determine the coefficient of the equation of the standard deviation of distribution frequency of dead seed during the storage period (σ). The coffee seeds did not behave as orthodox seeds, as indicated by the non linear variations of the logarithm of σ as a function of the variations of the logarithm of the seed moisture content.
614. K. E. Smith, J. M. Rogers, and J. C. Strickland, “Associations of Lifetime Nonmedical Opioid, Methamphetamine, and Kratom Use within a Nationally Representative US Sample,” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, vol. INVALID_SCITE_VALUE, no. INVALID_SCITE_VALUE, pp. 1–11, Nov. 2021. doi: 10.1080/02791072.2021.2006374. Abstract
     Co-use of non-medical opioids (NMO) and methamphetamine is increasing. So too is the use of the psychoactive botanical “kratom,” including among people with NMO and methamphetamine use histories. We assessed characteristics associated with respondent groups who reported lifetime methamphetamine and/or kratom use within a nationally representative US sample using 2019 National Survey on Drug Use and Health data from respondents reporting lifetime NMO use (diverted prescription opioids, heroin). Weighted prevalence estimates for demographic, mental health, and substance use outcomes were determined. Logistic regression examined associations between group membership and outcomes. Among this sample of respondents with lifetime NMO use, 67.6% (95% CI = 65.6–69.4%) reported only NMO use; 4.6% (3.9–5.4%) reported NMO+Kratom; 24.7% (22.7–26.7%) reported NMO+Methamphetamine; and 3.2% (2.5–3.9%) reported NMO+Methamphetamine+Kratom. Compared to those in the NMO-only group, the NMO+Kratom group was more likely to report past-year serious mental illness (SMI; OR = 2.27), suicidality (OR = 1.89), and past-month psychological distress (OR = 1.88). The NMO+Methamphetamine+Kratom group was more likely to report past-year SMI (OR = 2.65), past-month psychological distress (OR = 2.06), and unmet mental health needs (OR = 2.03); increased odds for drug injection, opioid withdrawal, and perceived treatment need also emerged. Risk factors were observed for all groups but were greatest among those reporting use of all three substances.
615. K. E. Smith, J. M. Rogers, D. Schriefer, and O. Grundmann, “Therapeutic Benefit with Caveats?: Analyzing Social Media Data to Understand the Complexities of Kratom Use,” Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol. 226, p. 108879, Sep. 2021. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2021.108879. Abstract
     Background Mitragyna speciosa, referred to as “kratom”, is increasingly used in the United States for self-treating pain, psychiatric, and substance use disorder symptoms. It is used by some to attenuate opioid withdrawal and as a longer-term drug substitute. Most self-report data have come from online surveys, small in-person surveys, and case reports. These may not be representative of the broader kratom-using population. Purpose Analyze user-generated social media posts to determine if independent, descriptive accounts are generally consistent with prior U.S. kratom survey findings and gain a more nuanced understanding of kratom use patterns. Methods Reddit posts mentioning kratom from 42 subreddits between June 2019–July 2020 were coded by two independent raters. Findings Relevant posts (number of comments, upvotes, and downvotes) from 1274 posts comprised the final sample (n = 280). Of the 1521 codes applied, 1273 (83.69%) were concordant. Desirable kratom effects were described among a majority, but so too were adverse effects. Reports of kratom as acute self-treatment for opioid withdrawal were more prominent compared to longer-term opioid substitution. Quantitative analysis found higher kratom doses associated (p < .001) with greater odds of reported kratom addiction (OR = 3.56) or withdrawal (OR = 5.88), with slightly lower odds of desirable effects (OR = 0.53, p = .014). Despite perceived therapeutic benefits, kratom was characterized by some in terms of addiction that, in some cases, appeared dose-dependent. Polydrug use was also prominently discussed. Conclusions Results validated many prior survey findings while illustrating complexities of kratom use that are not being fully captured and require continued investigation.
616. D. B. S. Soares et al., “\textbfPsychotria Viridis: Chemical Constituents from Leaves and Biological Properties,” Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências, vol. 89, pp. 927–938, 2017-Apr-Jun. doi: 10.1590/0001-3765201720160411. Abstract
     ABSTRACT The phytochemical study of hexane, chloroform and methanol extracts from leaves of Psychotria viridis resulted in the identification of: the pentacyclic triterpenes, ursolic and oleanolic acid; the steroids, 24-methylene-cycloartanol, stigmasterol and β-sitosterol; the glycosylated steroids 3-O-β-D-glucosyl-β-sitosterol and 3-O-β-D-glucosyl-stigmasterol; a polyunsaturated triterpene, squalene; the esters of glycerol, 1-palmitoylglycerol and triacylglycerol; a mixture of long chain hydrocarbons; the aldehyde nonacosanal; the long chain fat acids hentriacontanoic, hexadecanoic and heptadenoic acid; the ester methyl heptadecanoate; the 4-methyl-epi-quinate and two indole alkaloids, N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and N-methyltryptamine. The chemical structures were determined by means of spectroscopic (IR, 1H and 13C NMR, HSQC, HMBC and NOESY) and spectrometric (CG-MS and LCMS-ESI-ITTOF) methods. The study of biologic properties of P. viridis consisted in the evaluation of the acetylcholinesterase inhibition and cytotoxic activities. The hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate and methanol extracts, the substances 24-methylene-cycloartanol, DMT and a mixture of 3-O-β-D-glucosyl-β-sitosterol and 3-O-β-D-glucosyl-stigmasterol showed cholinesterase inhibiting activity. This activity induced by chloroform and ethyl acetate extracts was higher than 90%. The methanol and ethyl acetate extracts inhibit the growth and/or induce the death of the tumor cells strains B16F10 and 4T1, without damaging the integrity of the normal cells BHK and CHO. DMT also demonstrated a marked activity against tumor cell strains B16F10 and 4T1.
617. V. Sofiatti, E. F. Araujo, R. F. Araujo, A. Cargnin, M. S. Reis, and L. V. B. D. Silva, “Use of Sodium Hypochlorite to Hasten the Emergence and Development of Coffee Seedlings,” Bragantia, vol. 68, pp. 233–240, 2009. doi: 10.1590/S0006-87052009000100025. Abstract
     The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of seed imbibition in water solution at different concentrations of sodium hypochlorite on the rate and speed of emergence of coffee seedlings as well as to assess the development of the seedlings. One trial was conducted for each of the five seed moisture content (13%, 18%, 23%, 28% and 33% wet weight). Each one consisted of five treatments, represented by seeds previously imbibed for three hours in water solution with three sodium hypochlorite concentrations (4, 5 and 6% of active chlorine), besides seeds with parchment and seeds without parchment (control). The seedlings were evaluated for the emergence rate and speed, and the seedlings for height, number of leaves and leaf area. The preimbibition of seeds with initial moisture degree of 23, 28 or 33% in water solution with sodium hypochlorite at 4% active chlorine increased the rate and speed of seedling emergence, and improving the seedling development compared to seeds with parchment.
618. A. C. D. Souza et al., “Big Coffee Vl.: Seed Desiccation Tolerance, Sieve Classification, and Physiological Quality,” Coffee Science - ISSN 1984-3909, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 510–518, Dec. 2018. http://www.coffeescience.ufla.br/index.php/Coffeescience/article/view/1492. Abstract
     A coffee plant producing large fruit, seeds, and leaves in relation to conventional coffee plants, possibly generated by genetic mutation, was named Big Coffee VL. Seeds of this coffee plant were classified by size and used to establish the crop, whose plants were designated as Big Coffee VL. large, Big Coffee VL. medium, and Big Coffee VL. small. The aim of this study was to investigate desiccation tolerance, together with size classification, and evaluate the physiological quality of the seeds of this plant.  Seeds of each type of Big Coffee VL. and of the cultivar Topázio were collected. High moisture seeds and seeds dried to 11% moisture content were evaluated to assess desiccation tolerance. Dried seeds of each Big Coffee VL. progeny and of the Topázio cultivar were classified by size in sieve testing using oblong screens for separation of peaberry seeds, and circular sieves from 22 to 12 for separation of flat seeds. All seeds were subjected to physiological evaluation through the germination test and determination of seedling dry matter. A completely randomized experimental design (CRD) was used; results were subjected to analysis of variance and means compared by the Scott-Knott test. Big Coffee VL. seeds tolerate desiccation to moisture content of 11% wet basis. Seeds of the Topázio cultivar have better physiological performance than seeds of the Big Coffee VL progenies. The bigger the seeds of Big Coffee VL., the better their physiological performance, exhibiting greater seedling dry matter.
619. A. J. de J. Souza, R. J. Guimarães, A. Colombo, J. A. do V. Sant’Ana, and D. T. Castanheira, “Quantitative Analysis of Growth in Coffee Plants Cultivated with a Water-Retaining Polymer in an Irrigated System1,” Revista Ciência Agronômica, vol. 47, pp. 162–171, 2016-Jan-Mar. doi: 10.5935/1806-6690.20160019. Abstract
     ABSTRACT This study aimed to evaluate the use of hydro polymer retainer in the quantitative growth of coffee plants at different levels of irrigation and soil types. The experiment was conducted in pots with seedlings bag in the greenhouse of the Setor de Cafeicultura, Universidade Federal de Lavras. The experimental design was in randomized blocks in factorial (2x4x2): absence or presence of hydro polymer retainer, four levels of irrigation (25%, 50%, 75% and 100%), two soil types (sandy soil and medium texture). At 150 days evaluated the stem diameter, plant height, leaf area, number of leaves, dry weight of shoots, plant dry mass, root dry weight, root dry weight ratio of shoot, leaf area ratio, absolute growth rate, relative growth rate, net assimilation rate and leaf area index. It was concluded that the polymer hydro retainer hydrated favored the growth of coffee plants and irrigation promoted greater growth of coffee in medium textured soil compared to soils with sandy texture.
620. J. Spiral, T. Leroy, M. Paillard, and V. Pétiard, “Transgenic Coffee (Coffea Species),” in Transgenic Trees, Springer, 2000, pp. 55–76. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-59609-4_5. Abstract
     The coffee crop is of great economic importance; cultivated coffee presently covers 11.6 × 106ha worldwide, and the production of green beans totaled 9.6 ×106tons in 1996. The genus Coffea is represented by more than 70 species and forms part of the large family of the Rubiaceae. Commercially, C arabica and C canephora are the main species harvested (Coste 1989). Coffee is one of the most important commodity products in international trade, the second after petroleum; but, in spite of the economic importance of the best-flavored species, Arabica (Coffea arabica L), relatively few breeding varieties (lines or hybrids) are cultivated. In contrast, the Robusta species (Coffea canephora Pierre), which has less desirable attributes, has a wide diversity of clones in cultivation.
621. V. Sridevi and P. Giridhar, “In Vitro Shoot Growth, Direct Organogenesis and Somatic Embryogenesis Promoted by Silver Nitrate in Coffea Dewevrei,” Journal of plant biochemistry and biotechnology, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 112–118, 2014. doi: 10.1007%2Fs13562-012-0186-2. Abstract
     Direct differentiation of shoot buds in Coffea dewevrei was evident from the seedling shoots with collar region and also from collar region end of hypocotyl segments in presence of 40 μM AgNO3, 8.88 μM of BA and 2.85 μM of IAA. Apart from this, shoot end of hypocotyl explants mainly supported yellow friable callus or somatic embryos. Subsequent transfer to the same medium induced secondary somatic embryogenesis. The collar region of the hypocotyl explants not only showed direct organogenesis by producing 1–3 shoots per explant and also able to produce globular somatic embryos and embryogenic yellow friable callus. Similarly direct somatic embryogenesis along with yellow friable embryogenic callus formation on 1/2 strength MS medium comprising 1.47 μM IAA, 2.22 μM BA and 40 μM AgNO3 was noticed from cut portion of in vitro leaf and stalk of regenerated plants. The microshoots rooted well upon subculturing onto the same medium in 6 weeks and showed 60 % survival in green house and resumed growth upon hardening.
622. L. C. T. Starling et al., “Research Article Variability and Nutritional Balance among Genotypes of Coffea Canephora (Rubiaceae) in Drought versus Adequate Water Supply,” Genetics and Molecular Research, vol. 17, no. 4, 2018. doi: 10.4238/gmr18121. Abstract
     We examined the effect of water availability on the nutritional balance of 15 genotypes of the clonal cultivar “Conilon BRS Ouro Preto” of Coffea canephora grown in two contrasting environments in terms of water availability. Biomass production and nutritional balance parameters, based on the deviance from the standard ratio among nutrients for the species, were estimated after 170 days of cultivation in these contrasting environments. The variability of responses among genotypes indicated a favorable for identifying diversity among these genotypes and for selection aiming to explore their nutritional parameters, especially for the concentration of phosphorus and magnesium in green tissues. Cultivation in the environments with low water supply caused losses up to 29% in the biomass production of the young plants (with most severe losses observed for the aerial part); the magnitude of these losses varied among genotypes. Genotypes 125 and 155 accumulated significantly higher amounts of biomass when compared to the others, regardless of the water supply. Overall, the nutritional indexes of the tested genotypes showed greater metabolic inflexibility towards water stress than what is reported for other cultivars of Robusta coffee.
623. A. K. Stavrinides et al., “Seed Comparative Genomics in Three Coffee Species Identify Desiccation Tolerance Mechanisms in Intermediate Seeds,” Journal of Experimental Botany, vol. 71, no. 4, pp. 1418–1433, Feb. 2020. doi: 10.1093/jxb/erz508. Abstract
     In contrast to desiccation-tolerant ‘orthodox’ seeds, so-called ‘intermediate’ seeds cannot survive complete drying and are short-lived. All species of the genus Coffea produce intermediate seeds, but they show a considerable variability in seed desiccation tolerance (DT), which may help to decipher the molecular basis of seed DT in plants. We performed a comparative transcriptome analysis of developing seeds in three coffee species with contrasting desiccation tolerance. Seeds of all species shared a major transcriptional switch during late maturation that governs a general slow-down of metabolism. However, numerous key stress-related genes, including those coding for the late embryogenesis abundant protein EM6 and the osmosensitive calcium channel ERD4, were up-regulated during DT acquisition in the two species with high seed DT, C. arabica and C. eugenioides. By contrast, we detected up-regulation of numerous genes involved in the metabolism, transport, and perception of auxin in C. canephora seeds with low DT. Moreover, species with high DT showed a stronger down-regulation of the mitochondrial machinery dedicated to the tricarboxylic acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. Accordingly, respiration measurements during seed dehydration demonstrated that intermediate seeds with the highest DT are better prepared to cease respiration and avoid oxidative stresses.
624. S. R. Steiman, H. C. Bittenbender, and T. W. Idol, “Analysis of Kaolin Particle Film Use and Its Application on Coffee,” HortScience, vol. 42, no. 7, pp. 1605–1608, Dec. 2007. doi: 10.21273/HORTSCI.42.7.1605. Abstract
     Application of a kaolin-based particle film, Surround WP, was analyzed using glass plates and slides. The kaolin was sprayed on coffee grown in full sun to evaluate physiological responses to this shading technique. Kaolin reduced photosynthetically active radiation and ultraviolet transmission and decreased surface temperatures on glass slides. In the second year of application, photosynthesis of plants sprayed with kaolin was 71% greater than full-sun plants and yields were doubled. Leaf temperature was significantly lower in the kaolin treatment, but stable C isotope ratios, water use efficiency, nodal growth, and specific leaf area were not. The most likely mechanisms for increased yield are increased light transmittance to inner-canopy nodes or greater storage of photosynthate during the first year. Although results from this study suggest there is much promise for improving the performance and yield of coffee with kaolin application, studies with other species have shown inconsistent results. This inconsistency may be linked to variation in application techniques, kaolin coverage and subsequent effects on light transmission, leaf temperature, and physiological function. Thus, reports on physiological performance alone are insufficient to evaluate the use of kaolin application. Detailed information on application techniques combined with measurements of end-product criteria such as yield or quality are recommended to facilitate cross-study comparisons.
625. V. C. Stein, “Biotechnological Approaches to Improve Drought Tolerance of Coffea Arabica,” PhD thesis, Universidade Federal de Lavras, Lavras, Minas Gerais, Brasil, 2009. http://www.sbicafe.ufv.br/handle/123456789/6681. Abstract
     Overexpression of SHINE gene induces the expression of these stress- related genes under normal growth conditions in transgenic plants and then confers the improved tolerance to drought. In recent years rapid procedures for obtaining transgenic roots have been developed using Agrobacterium rhizogenes, leading to the production of so-called “composite plants” comprising a transgenic hairy root system attached to non-transformed shoots and leaves. In the chapter II was determined the effect of (over)expression of the Arabidopsis SHN2 gene in stable and/or chimeric transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana and Brassica rapa plants subjected to drought treatment. In the chapter III was developed an efficient method for coffee genetic transformation by A. rhizogenes in order to create chimeric C. arabica (Catuaí Vermelho IAC 144) with wild-type shoots and transgenic roots for rapid testing of potentially interesting gene construct for future stable transformation using A. tumefaciens or A. rhizogenes and in the chapter IV was expressed the SHN2 gene of Arabidopsis thaliana in transgenic hairy roots of Coffea arabica after Agrobacterium rhizogenes-mediated root transformation in order to improve the drought tolerance of such chimeric plants. 50% of the 35S::SHN2 chimaric transgenic Arabdopsis plants exposed to 10 days withholding water and rewatered for one week recovered the drought treatment. In the coffee transformation 42% of hypocotyls infected A. rhizogenes contained pREDRoot plasmid had at least one transgenic roots and hypocotyls infected with A. rhizogenes contained pMOG22-35S::SHN2 and showed 32% of transformation. In the coffee drought experiment the DsRED (control) chimeric plants did not recover from the 15-day dehydration treatment and completely dried out all while the 35S:SHN2 chimeric plants recovered and become greener and stronger.
626. D. Suhendra, S. Efendi, S. Aisyah, and S. H. Y. Saragih, “Seed Vigor Testing of Coffee [Coffea Sp.] to Gibberellin Hormone [GA3] Concentration and Water Temperature Differences,” in IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 2021, vol. 741, p. 012004. doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/741/1/012004. Abstract
     West Sumatra is one producing coffee region in Indonesia that contributes to the economy in Indonesia because unstable need expand. Optimizing generative propagation of coffee plants with gibberellin hormone treatment and different water temperatures on coffee seed germination stage. The research was conducted at the Seed Technology Laboratory Faculty Agriculture, Andalas University from July to September 2020. Research methods used randomized block design [RBD] with 2 treatments namely concentration hormone gibberellin and immersion water temperature differences. Measurement parameters are maximum growth potential [%], First Count Test [FCT] [%], and Index Value Test [IVT] [days]. All parameter observation results showed a significant effect on the treatment of gibberellin hormone concentration and water temperature treatment. G4S1 sample [the combination of 200 ppm gibberellin hormone concentration and room water temperature treatments] has resulted as the best treatment for all parameters. Respectively, 0.79 days for index value test, 76.67% for the first count test, and 85% for the maximum growth potential parameters.
627. S. Sukrong, S. Zhu, N. Ruangrungsi, T. Phadungcharoen, C. Palanuvej, and K. Komatsu, “Molecular Analysis of the Genus Mitragyna Existing in Thailand Based on rDNA ITS Sequences and Its Application to Identify a Narcotic Species: Mitragyna Speciosa,” Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, vol. 30, no. 7, pp. 1284–1288, 2007. doi: 10.1248/bpb.30.1284. Abstract
     In Thailand, there are four Mitragyna species; M. speciosa, M. hirsuta, M. diversifolia, and M. rotundifolia. One, M. speciosa, is a narcotic plant and has medicinal importance for its opium-like effect. Since the use of M. speciosa has been forbidden in Thailand, the leaves of M. diversifolia or others are frequently used as substitutes but are not considered as effective. Therefore, accurate authentication of M. speciosa is essential for both medicinal and forensic purposes. The nucleotide sequences of internal transcribed spacers (ITS) and the 5.8S coding region of nuclear ribosomal DNA (rDNA) of the Mitragyna species were analyzed. The whole length of ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region was 608 bp in M. speciosa, 607 bp in the other species. Nineteen sites of nucleotide substitutions and 3 sites of 1-bp indels were observed, and M. speciosa showed specific sequence differed from the others. Based on the ITS sequences, a distinctive site recognized by a restriction enzyme XmaI in M. speciosa was found and then PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis was established to differentiate M. speciosa from the others. By the method, a 409-bp PCR fragment of ITS1-5.8S (partial) rDNA region from M. speciosa was cleaved into two fragments of 119 bp and 290 bp while the other species remained undigested. This method provides an effective and accurate identification of M. speciosa.
628. E. Sulistyono, A. Wachjar, and H. F. Rochmah, “Simple Method to Determine Irrigation Water Requirement for Coffee (Coffea Arabica (Linn)) Nursery,” in 1st International Conference on Sustainable Plantation, Bogor, Indonesia, 2020, vol. 418, p. 012010. doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/418/1/012010. Abstract
     Easy method that used simple instrument was needed to calculate irrigation water requirement rapidly. The research was conducted to get coefficient for determining crop water requirement. Data was generated with single factor experiment arranged in Randomized Block Design with three replications at Bogor Agricultural University Research Station during March to October 2013. The treatment was five levels of shading that were 0. 25. 50. 75 and 100 % of shading. Coefficient of evapotranspiration was calculated by dividing evapotranpiration value with pan evaporation value. Result of the research showed that shading affected evapotranspiration or crop water requirement. So that. the coefficient of evapotranspiration under different level of shading was also different. Trend line between coefficient of evapotranspiration and leaf number was 0.002 X2 + 0.032 X + 1.305 for 0 % of shading. 0.002 X2 + 0.009 X + 1.430 for 25 % of shading. 0.007 X2 - 0.086 X + 1.676 for 50 % of shading. and 0.002 X2 – 0.018 X + 1.311 for 75 % of shading. In conclusion.the coefficient of evapotranspiration under 50% of shading are 1.52. 1.36. 1.20. 1.04 at growth phase of 2. 4. 6 and 8 leaves respectively.
629. N. Surya Prakash, J. Devasia, Y. Raghuramulu, and R. K. Aggarwal, “Genetic Diversity and Coffee Improvement in India,” in Molecular Breeding for Sustainable Crop Improvement: Volume 2, V. R. Rajpal, S. R. Rao, and S. N. Raina, Eds. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2016, pp. 231–268. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-27090-6_11. Abstract
     Coffee, often referred to as ‘Brown Gold’, is a popular beverage crop produced in more than 80 countries including India, having an annual turnover of ca. US$ 70 billion globally. This economically important plantation crop of tropics and subtropics comprises only two commercial species, Coffea arabica L. and Coffea canephora Pierre ex Froehner (popularly known as arabica and robusta coffee, respectively) although there exists large number of Coffea species worldwide. C. arabica L. is the only allotetraploid species (2n = 4x = 44) in the genus and self-fertile while all other species including C. canephora are diploids (2n = 22) and self-incompatible. Arabica and robusta coffee types differ significantly in terms of phenotype, agronomic behaviour, bean and liquor quality, and breeding behaviour as well as genetic variability in their extant germplasm. Arabicas produce superior quality coffee but are susceptible to major diseases and pests while robustas are more tolerant to the diseases and pests but the bean and the liquor qualities are inferior to arabicas. Therefore, the major focus of coffee improvement in India is on the development of high-yielding hybrids having durable host resistance in arabica and evolving drought-tolerant robusta genotypes to cope with the changing climate, more efficiently. Till date, the Central Coffee Research Institute (CCRI), India, has developed 13 improved arabica and three robusta selections for commercial cultivation, by employing conventional breeding approaches and utilizing coffee germplasm that was introduced in the nineteenth century through multiple international expeditions. Occurrence of spontaneous tetraploid inter-specific hybrids between tetraploid arabica and other diploid species has also facilitated arabica coffee improvement through introgressive breeding. More recently, the DNA marker tools and technologies that provide new opportunities to overcome some of the limitations of the conventional breeding strategies are being integrated for more precise characterization of primary as well as secondary gene pools for exploitation in breeding through marker-assisted selection. This chapter highlights the key aspects of Indian coffee sector vis-a-vis world scenario and unique features of Indian coffee cultivation, genetic resources, analysis and exploitation of genetic diversity for crop improvement through conventional breeding.
630. M. T. Swogger et al., “Understanding Kratom Use: A Guide for Healthcare Providers,” Frontiers in Pharmacology, vol. 13, p. 801855, Mar. 2022. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2022.801855. Abstract
     Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth., Rubiaceae) is a plant native to Southeast Asia, where it has been used for centuries as a mild stimulant and as medicine for various ailments. More recently, as kratom has gained popularity in the West, United States federal agencies have raised concerns over its safety leading to criminalization in some states and cities. Some of these safety concerns have echoed across media and broad-based health websites and, in the absence of clinical trials to test kratom’s efficacy and safety, considerable confusion has arisen among healthcare providers. There is, however, a growing literature of peer-reviewed science that can inform healthcare providers so that they are better equipped to discuss kratom use with consumers and people considering kratom use within the context of their overall health and safety, while recognizing that neither kratom nor any of its constituent substances or metabolites have been approved as safe and effective for any disease. An especially important gap in safety-related science is the use of kratom in combination with physiologically active substances and medicines. With these caveats in mind we provide a comprehensive overview of the available science on kratom that has the potential to i clarity for healthcare providers and patients. We conclude by making recommendations for best practices in working with people who use kratom.
631. H. Takayama, “Chemistry and Pharmacology of Analgesic Indole Alkaloids from the Rubiaceous Plant, Mitragyna Speciosa,” vol. 52, no. 8, 2004.
632. H. Takayama, H. Ishikawa, M. Kitajima, N. Aimi, and B. M. Aji, “A New 9-Methoxyyohimbine-Type Indole Alkaloid from Mitragyna Africanus,” Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, vol. 52, no. 3, pp. 359–361, 2004. doi: 10.1248/cpb.52.359. Abstract
     A new yohimbine-type indole alkaloid (1) was isolated from the stem bark of Mitragyna africanus (WILLD.) collected in Nigeria, along with known seven Corynanthe-type oxindole alkaloids, two secoiridoids, three lignans, and a quinovic acid derivative. Their structures were elucidated by spectroscopic analyses.
633. J. H. da S. Taveira, S. D. V. F. da Rosa, F. M. Borém, G. S. Giomo, and R. Saath, “Perfis proteicos e desempenho fisiológico de sementes de café submetidas a diferentes métodos de processamento e secagem,” Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira, vol. 47, pp. 1511–1517, Oct. 2012. doi: 10.1590/S0100-204X2012001000014. Abstract
     O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar os perfis proteicos e o desempenho fisiológico de sementes de café submetidas a diferentes métodos de processamento e secagem. Foram avaliados os processamentos por via seca e úmida, e as secagens natural, em terreiro, e artificial a 60ºC, ou a 60ºC até 30% de umidade e 40ºC até teor final de 11% (base úmida). Após serem processadas e secadas, as sementes foram avaliadas quanto ao desempenho fisiológico e submetidas a análises bioquímicas, por meio da eletroforese de proteínas resistentes ao calor LEA ("late embryogenesis abundant") e das enzimas superóxido dismutase, catalase, peroxidase, esterase, polifenoloxidase, isocitrato desidrogenase, álcool desidrogenase e malato desidrogenase. O perfil proteico de sementes de café é afetado pelo método de processamento e de secagem. Os cafés processados por via úmida apresentam maior tolerância à secagem - revelada pela maior atividade de enzimas antioxidativas e pelo melhor desempenho fisiológico - do que os processados por via seca. A atividade de proteínas resistentes ao calor e de enzimas antioxidantes é variável promissora para diferenciar a qualidade dos cafés submetidos a diferentes manejos pós-colheita.
634. J. H. D. S. Taveira et al., “Post-Harvest Effects on Beverage Quality and Physiological Performance of Coffee Beans.,” African Journal of Agricultural Research, vol. 10, no. 12, pp. 1457–1466, 2015. http://www.alice.cnptia.embrapa.br/handle/doc/1039291. Abstract
     During coffee drying, different temperatures applied to the beans with varied humidity content levels can interfere in the membranes integrity, germination, organic acid and carbohydrate content resulting in coffees with distinct flavors. The quality control of the beans will be much more effective the earlier the alterations provoked in the postharvest are detected. This work has an objective to study alternative methods for the dehydration o f the coffee beans using ultra-drying followed by slow drying and its impact on the sensorial quality, chemical composition and physiology. For that purpose, coffee lots were processed by the methods, dry (natural coffee) and wet (fully washed coffee); and sun-dried and machine-dried at a constant 60°C temperature and alternating 60/40°C. The sensory quality of the samples was assessed by the Specialty Coffee Association of America (SCAA) analysis protocol. The sugar, total titratable acidity and the phenolic compound content was also analyzed. The physiological alterations of the coffee beans were analyzed by germination tests, emergence speed index, electrical conductivity and potassium leaching. The temperature of the drying air significantly altered the sensorial quality of the coffee beans. The processing way associated to drying methods causes many physiological alterations with the highest damage observed in the natural coffees. For the first time, we are showing that drying with heated air at 60/40ºC is promising for the fully washed coffee beans, which are more tolerant to dehydration than the natural coffee beans. Conversely, the natural coffee beans were much more sensitive to drying regardless the temperature, with very low performance in the physiological analyses. The drying at the constant 60ºC temperature is inappropriate for the natural coffee as well as for the fully washed coffee beans. In addition, the physiological tests used were shown effective for the early evaluation of coffee beans quality.
635. C. M. Taylor, R. E. Gereau, and H. H. Schmidt, “Some Distinctive New Species of Psychotria (Rubiaceae, Psychotrieae) from Madagascar,” Candollea, vol. 75, no. 2, pp. 159–182, Oct. 2020. doi: 10.15553/c2020v752a1. Abstract
     Taylor, C.M., R.E. Gereau & H.H. Schmidt (2020). Some distinctive new species of Psychotria (Rubiaceae, Psychotrieae) from Madagascar. Candollea 75: 159–182. In English, English and French abstracts.Psychotria L. (Rubiaceae, Psychotrieae) is an unusually species-rich genus in Madagascar. Recent botanical explorations here have found a number of undescribed species, and some unusual morphological structures for this genus. Here ten new Psychotria species from Madagascar are formally described: Psychotria ambatovensis C.M. Taylor, Psychotria antilahimenae C.M. Taylor, Psychotria birkinshawiana C.M. Taylor, Psychotria davisiana C.M. Taylor, Psychotria eumachioides C.M. Taylor, Psychotria hamifera C.M. Taylor, Psychotria mutabilis C.M. Taylor, Psychotria notopleuroides C.M. Taylor, Psychotria palifera C.M. Taylor, and Psychotria razafimandimbisonii C.M. Taylor. Unusual morphological features of some of these species include a prostrate habit, deeply retuse leaves, and enlarged, persistent, funnelform stipules. Assessment of the conservation status of these using IUCN Red List categories finds four of them “Vulnerable” and six “Endangered”.
636. C. M. Taylor, “Overview of Psychotria in Madagascar (Rubiaceae, Psychotrieae), and of Bremekamp’s Foundational Study of This Group,” Candollea, vol. 75, no. 1, pp. 51–70, Mar. 2020. doi: 10.15553/c2020v751a5. Abstract
     Taylor, C.M. (2020). Overview of Psychotria in Madagascar (Rubiaceae, Psychotrieae), and of Bremekamp’s foundational study of this group. Candollea 75: 51–70. In English, English abstract.Psychotria L. (Rubiaceae, Psychotrieae) is a large pantropical genus that is one of the largest genera in Madagascar, with almost all of its species endemic to the island and an unusually wide range of morphological variation. Cornelis E.B. Bremekamp (1888–1984) presented a detailed taxonomic treatment for Madagascar and the Comores that classified 143 species in Psychotria and six segregate genera, and that has been influential in Rubiaceae systematics but also problematic. Molecular systematic studies have found Bremekamp’s six genera nested within Psychotria, but did not study most of their unusual characters. Here his genera and their morphological features are studied in light of our current knowledge of Psychotria in Madagascar and overall understanding of this genus. Some unusual characters are detailed here for Malagasy Psychotria. A new name, Psychotria deflexiflora C.M. Taylor, is published as a legitimate name for Psychotria penduliflora Bremek.Received: May 21, 2019; Accepted: February 7, 2020; First published online: March 24, 2020
637. C. M. Taylor, “Rubiacearum Americanarum Magna Hama Pars XXXI: More New Neotropical Species and Morphological Notes for Psychotria (Psychotrieae),” Novon: A Journal for Botanical Nomenclature, vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 413–434, May 2016. doi: 10.3417/2015021. Abstract
     Botanical exploration has documented 11 new species of Psychotria L. (i.e., Psychotria s. str., Psychotria subg. Psychotria: Rubiaceae) in the western Amazon basin and Andes of South America. Psychotria anisophylla C. M. Taylor is found at 200–800 m in Peru and Bolivia and is characterized by its unequally sized leaves, calyptrate stipules, and flowers that are solitary or paired and borne on axillary short-shoots. Psychotria awa C. M. Taylor is found at 100–1325 m along the Colombia–Ecuador border and differs from P. hammelii Dwyer in its planar (non-bulliform) leaves. Psychotria calyptrata C. M. Taylor is found at 1021–2850 m in Bolivia and Peru and differs from P. trichotoma M. Martens & Galeotti in its pubescent smaller leaves, subsessile flowers, and fruits that are not stipitate. Psychotria cochabambana C. M. Taylor is found at 1940–2180 m in central Bolivia and differs from P. cutucuana C. M. Taylor by its longer corollas. Psychotria davidsmithiana C. M. Taylor is found at 1600–2862 m in Peru and Bolivia and differs from P. aristeguietae Steyerm. in its shorter calyx lobes. Psychotria diminuta C. M. Taylor is found at 1600–1800 m in Peru and differs from P. parvifolia Benth. by its subsessile leaves with sacciform domatia, 3-flowered inflorescences, and 5-merous flowers. Psychotria grahamii C. M. Taylor is found at 250–850 m in central Peru and differs from P. juninensis Standl. in its longer calyx limbs. Psychotria maynasana C. M. Taylor is found at 120–170 m in Peru and western Brazil and differs from P. anceps Kunth in its larger fruits. Psychotria ortiziana C. M. Taylor is found at 193–900 m in Peru, western Brazil, and Bolivia and is characterized by its bilobed interpetiolar stipules, leaves with sacciform domatia, rather large corollas, and fruits borne on well-developed stipes. Psychotria pandoana C. M. Taylor is found in at 110–285 m in western Brazil and northern Bolivia and differs from P. pectinata Steyerm. in its broader pubescent leaves without domatia and larger corollas. Also, P. sopkinii C. M. Taylor is found at 1500–2730 m in western Colombia and differs from P. convergens C. M. Taylor by its shorter corollas.
638. C. M. Taylor, “Rubiacearum Americanarum Magna Hama Pars XLV: More New Species and Taxonomic Changes in Palicourea (Rubiaceae, Palicoureeae) and Psychotria Subg. Heteropsychotria,” Novon, A Journal for Botanical Nomenclature, vol. 27, no. 3, pp. 165–195, Sep. 2019. doi: 10.3417/2019387. Abstract
     Psychotria subg. Heteropsychotria Steyerm. has been shown by morphological and molecular analyses to be polyphyletic. Most of its species, including its type, belong to Palicourea Aubl. (“Pal.”). Thirty-two species of this group are reviewed here, and 17 species in Psychotria L. are transferred to Palicourea and one to Rudgea Salisb. Two replacement names, Pal. agudeloana C. M. Taylor and Pal. tabayensis C. M. Taylor, are published. Taxonomic studies here clarify circumscriptions of similar, often-confused species for several distinctive species groups found variously in Mesoamerica and the Andes: the Palicourea aschersonianoides group, the Palicourea galeottiana group, the Palicourea sulphurea group, and the Palicourea tristis group. Three new species of Palicourea are described: Pal. aschersonianula C. M. Taylor, Pal. gonzaleziana C. M. Taylor, and Pal. wachterae C. M. Taylor. Nineteen names are newly typified, and infrageneric classifications are noted for the species of Palicourea studied. Read this article at BioOne.
639. S. G. Tesfaye, M. R. Ismail, M. F. Ramlan, M. Marziah, H. Kausar, and M. A. Hakim, “Effect of Water Deficiency on Growth and Dry Matter Yield of Selected in Robusta Coffee (Coffea Canephora) Clones in Malaysia,” Journal of Environmental Biology, vol. 36, no. 5, pp. 1239–1245, 2015. http://www.jeb.co.in/index.php?page=abstract&issue=201509_sep15&number=28. Abstract
     Drought stress is one of the major bottle necks of growth and productivity of Robusta coffee (Coffea canephora pierre ex froehner) in many producing areas the crop. An experiment was carried out to determine the difference among known Robusta coffee clones for rate of vegetative growth and dry matter production and partitioning under water deficit stress condition and to identify drought tolerant materials. Twelve-month-old seedlings of six Robusta coffee clones (IC-2, IC-3, IC-4, IC-6, IC-8 and R-4) were subjected to two irrigation treatments: well-watered control and water-stressed by withholding irrigation for 3 weeks in a rain shelter. Growth response to soil drying and dry matter distribution among plant parts were measured to identify drought tolerant clones. Leaf growth of all the coffee clones was considerably affected by soil drying. There were significant differences noted between clones for the rate of reduction in leaf elongation, total leaf area, specific leaf area (SLA) and dry matter yield under water stress condition. Moreover, rate of survival of coffee plants during drought and recovery upon re-watering at the end of the soil drying period significantly varied with clone. Some of the clones, particularly IC-3 and IC-6, exhibited higher root: shoot ratio (0.493 – 0.613) and total leaf area (900 – 920cm2) and lower SLA (82 – 83 cm2/g) and rate of leaf fall (62 – 71%) than the other clones (with the respective values of 0.413 – 0.447, 160 – 440cm2, 92 – 97 cm2/g, 82 – 92%) under water-stressed condition. These clones (86 – 88%) survived stress and produced new leaves and flowers more rapidly after re-watering than R-4 (37%) and IC-8 (53%). Hence, clones IC-6 and IC-3 exhibited better performances and seemed to be less sensitive to water deficit stress. Drought tolerance attributes in these clones could be linked to some morphological modifications, mainly increased root: shoot ratio and reduced SLA.
640. T. J. Theim, R. Y. Shirk, and T. J. Givnish, “Spatial Genetic Structure in Four Understory Psychotria Species (Rubiaceae) and Implications for Tropical Forest Diversity,” American Journal of Botany, vol. 101, no. 7, pp. 1189–1199, 2014. doi: 10.3732/ajb.1300460. Abstract
     • Premise of the study: Tropical forests are the most species-rich terrestrial communities on Earth, and understory trees and shrubs comprise a large fraction of their plant species diversity, especially at high rainfalls. The mechanisms responsible for generating such high levels of diversity remain unknown. One hypothesis is that fleshy-fruited understory species should have limited seed dispersal due to the sedentary nature of their avian dispersers, resulting in restricted gene flow, population differentiation at small spatial scales, and ultimately, high rates of allopatric speciation. • Methods: We sampled four species of the hyperdiverse tropical shrub genus Psychotria (Rubiaceae) on Barro Colorado Island (BCI) and two nearby sites in Panama. We genotyped each species with AFLPs, assessed genetic differentiation among populations, and determined patterns of fine-scale spatial genetic structure in the BCI population. Measures of spatial autocorrelation and population density were used to estimate the dispersal distance parameter σ. • Key results: Regionally, ΦPT values ranged from 0.13 to 0.28, reflecting local population differentiation and suggesting that Lake Gatun/Rio Chagres has posed a relatively strong barrier to gene flow. Fine-scale spatial genetic structure on BCI was stronger than in most canopy trees, and estimated distances of gene flow were unusually low for endozoochorous tropical woody plants, with dispersal distance σ = 9–113 m. • Conclusions: These results demonstrate comparatively limited gene flow in bird-dispersed understory species, supporting a hypothesized mechanism for generating high levels of plant species diversity in tropical rain forests, in one of the largest genera of flowering plants on Earth.
641. J. M. R. Thevenin and R. H. R. Sambuichi, “Phytogeography and Floristics of the Arbor Component in União Do Vegetal Territories Intended for the Cultivation of Banisteriopsis Caapi and Psychotria Viridis in Rondônia,” Raega - O Espaço Geográfico em Análise, vol. 49, no. 0, p. 42, Dec. 2020. doi: 10.5380/raega.v49i0.67208. Abstract
     The territorial expansion of Amazonian religions that make ritual use of Ayahuasca / Hoasca, in Rondônia, has been associated to the maintenance of forested areas and recovery of degraded areas associated with the cultivation of Banisteriopsis caapi [(SpruceexGriseb.) CV Morton] and Psychotria viridis (Ruiz & Pav.) in agroforestry systems (SAFs). The present research had as objective to carry out the floristic survey and to analyze the composition and structure of the arboreal component of the forest fragments and agroforestry of territorial areas of União do Vegetal, one of the Hoasca religious matrices, in each phytoecological region of its comprehension in Rondônia. For this, non-probabilistic samples were performed on 08 rural properties in the delimited territory. In the selected areas, disjoint plots of 50 x 20 m (0.1 ha) were plotted, totaling 23 plots and 2.3 ha of area sampled, and then phytosociological parameters were calculated in the FITOPAC 2.1 application. Floristic surveys and phytosociological parameters presented satisfactory results regarding the conservation of phytodiversity in these areas according to the phytoecological region in which they are found. The occurrence of species in the Near Threatened and Vulnerable (VU) status by RedList shows the importance of these territories to conservation. In the case of samples in cultivated areas of the ritual species, these results were superior to other Agroforestry Systems, and in 75% of the samples better than the own areas of forest destined to the Legal Reserve of the same property.
642. D. A. Todd et al., “Chemical Composition and Biological Effects of Kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa): In Vitro Studies with Implications for Efficacy and Drug Interactions,” Scientific Reports, vol. 10, no. 1, p. 19158, Nov. 2020. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-76119-w. Abstract
     The safety and efficacy of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) for treatment of pain is highly controversial. Kratom produces more than 40 structurally related alkaloids, but most studies have focused on just two of these, mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine. Here, we profiled 53 commercial kratom products using untargeted LC–MS metabolomics, revealing two distinct chemotypes that contain different levels of the alkaloid speciofoline. Both chemotypes were confirmed with DNA barcoding to be M. speciosa. To evaluate the biological relevance of variable speciofoline levels in kratom, we compared the opioid receptor binding activity of speciofoline, mitragynine, and 7-hydroxymitragynine. Mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine function as partial agonists of the human µ-opioid receptor, while speciofoline does not exhibit measurable binding affinity at the µ-, δ- or ƙ-opioid receptors. Importantly, mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine demonstrate functional selectivity for G-protein signaling, with no measurable recruitment of β-arrestin. Overall, the study demonstrates the unique binding and functional profiles of the kratom alkaloids, suggesting potential utility for managing pain, but further studies are needed to follow up on these in vitro findings. All three kratom alkaloids tested inhibited select cytochrome P450 enzymes, suggesting a potential risk for adverse interactions when kratom is co-consumed with drugs metabolized by these enzymes.
643. M. A. Tomaz, H. E. P. Martinez, N. S. Sakiyama, C. D. Cruz, and A. A. Pereira, “Absorption, Translocation and Utilization of Zinc, Copper and Manganese in Grafted Seedlings of Coffea Arabica,” Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo, vol. 30, pp. 377–384, Apr. 2006. doi: 10.1590/S0100-06832006000200017. Abstract
     Comparativamente ao pé-franco, a combinação enxerto/porta-enxerto altera os complexos mecanismos de "feedback" entre parte aérea e raízes, afetando de maneira positiva ou negativa a eficiência nutricional da planta. Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar, em cultivo hidropônico, a eficiência da absorção, translocação e utilização de Zn, Cu e Mn por mudas de Coffea arabica L., de acordo com o porta-enxerto utilizado. O experimento foi realizado em casa de vegetação, por um período de 170 dias, em vasos que continham areia como substrato, recebendo solução nutritiva circulante. Utilizaram-se, como enxerto, quatro genótipos de C. arabica: os cultivares Catuaí Vermelho IAC 15 e Oeiras MG 6851 e os híbridos ’H 419-10-3-1-5’ e ’H 514-5-5-3’ , e, como porta-enxerto, quatro genótipos, sendo três de Coffea canephora Pierre ex Froenher: Apoatã LC 2258, Conilon Muriaé-1 e RC EMCAPA 8141 (recombinação entre clones da variedade Robustão Capixaba - EMCAPA 8141) e uma linhagem de Coffea arabica L.: Mundo Novo IAC 376-4, além de quatro pés-francos. O delineamento experimental utilizado foi em blocos casualizados com 20 tratamentos, quatro repetições e uma planta por parcela. A eficiência nutricional das mudas quanto ao Zn, Cu e Mn variou de acordo com a combinação enxerto/porta-enxerto. A progênie ’H 514-5-5-3’ foi mais eficiente quanto à utilização de Zn, Cu e Mn e produção de matéria seca, quando combinada com os porta-enxertos Apoatã LC 2258 e Mundo Novo IAC 376-4. O Catuaí Vermelho IAC 15 foi mais eficiente na utilização de Cu e Mn quando combinado com Apoatã LC 2258.
644. M. A. Tomaz, N. S. Sakiyama, H. E. P. Martinez, C. D. Cruz, L. Zambolim, and A. A. Pereira, “Comparison of Nutritional Efficiency among Hydroponic Grafted Young Coffee Trees for N, P, and K,” Cropp Breeding and Applied Biotechnology, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 92–99, Mar. 2004. doi: 10.12702/1984-7033.v04n01a15. Abstract
     Grafted Coffea arabica L. plants were grown hydroponically in a greenhouse for an evaluation of their nutritional efficiency under the influence of different rootstocks. Four C. arabica genotypes were used as scions: ’Catuaí Vermelho IAC 15’, ’Oeiras MG 6851’, and lines H 419-10-3-1-5, and H 514-5-5-3. The three latter are cultivars resistant to the Hemileia vastatrix, pathogen of the orange rust. Rootstocks were three genotypes of Coffea canephora Pierre et Froenher: Apoatã LC 2258, Conilon, and Robustão Capixaba (Emcapa 8141), and one C. arabica genotype: Mundo Novo IAC 376-4. Rootstocks Apoatã LC 2258 and Mundo Novo IAC 376-4 were outstanding. Cultivars Conilon and Robustão Capixaba did not increase the nutritional efficiency of the scions. ‘Oeiras’ and H 419-10-3-1-5 had considerable nutrition efficiency when used as nongrafted plants.
645. M. A. Tomaz, S. R. Silva, N. S. Sakiyama, and H. E. P. Martinez, “Eficiência de absorção, translocação e uso de cálcio, magnésio e enxofre por mudas enxertadas de Coffea arabica,” Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo, vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 885–892, Oct. 2003. doi: 10.1590/S0100-06832003000500013. Abstract
     O estudo da eficiência nutricional de plantas enxertadas de cafeeiro é importante para a seleção de combinações enxerto/porta-enxerto, visando ao desenvolvimento e produção máximos. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar, em cultivo hidropônico, a eficiência de absorção, translocação e uso de Ca, Mg e S por mudas enxertadas de Coffea arabica L., influenciada pelo porta-enxerto. O experimento foi realizado em casa de vegetação por um período de 170 dias, em vasos que continham areia, como substrato, e solução nutritiva circulante. Utilizaram-se, como enxerto, quatro genótipos de Coffea arabica L.: as variedades Catuaí Vermelho IAC 15 e Oeiras MG 6851 e as linhagens H 419-10-3-1-5 e H 514-5-5-3, e, como porta-enxerto, três genótipos de C. canephora Pierre et Froenher: Apoatã LC 2258, Conillon Muriaé-1, Robustão Capixaba (EMCAPA 8141) e um genótipo de Coffea arabica L.: Mundo Novo IAC 376-4, além da utilização de quatro pés-francos. Utilizou-se o delineamento experimental de blocos casualizados com quatro repetições. Os contrastes entre médias compararam as mudas de pé-franco com as associações enxerto/porta-enxerto. A eficiência de absorção, translocação e uso de Ca, Mg e S por mudas enxertadas de cafeeiro variou de acordo com a combinação enxerto/porta-enxerto. Somente a eficiência de translocação de Ca não foi alterada pela combinação enxerto/porta-enxerto. A linhagem H 514-5-5-3 foi beneficiada na eficiência de uso de Mg e produção de matéria seca pelos porta-enxertos Mundo Novo IAC 376-4 e Apoatã LC 2258, e na eficiência de uso de Ca e S apenas pelo Mundo Novo IAC 376-4. , Studies into the nutritional efficiency of grafted coffee plants is essential for the selection of graft/rootstock combinations for a maximum development and production. Our objective was the evaluation of the influence of rootstocks on the efficiency of uptake, translocation and use of Ca, Mg, and S in young Coffee arabica L. plants in hydroponic cultivation. The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse and lasted 170 days, using sand as substratum and circulating nutritive solution. Four genotypes of Coffea arabica L. were utilized as grafts: varieties Catuaí Vermelho IAC 15 and Oeiras MG 6851, and lines H 419-10-3-1-5 and H 514-5-5-3. Four non-grafted plants and four rootstocks, which comprised three genotypes of Coffea canephora Pierre et Froenher (Apoatã LC 2258, Conillon Muriaé-1, and Robustão Capixaba (EMCAPA 8141)) and one genotype of Coffea arabica L. (Mundo Novo IAC 376-4), were also studied. The experimental layout was a randomized block design with four replicates. Means of the non-grafted plants and graft/rootstock combinations were compared. The efficiency of uptake, translocation and use of Ca, Mg and S in the young coffee plants varied with the graft/rootstock combinations. Only the translocation efficiency of Ca was not altered by the graft/rootstock combination. Rootstocks Apoatã LC 2258 and Mundo Novo IAC 376-4 brought forth an enhanced use efficiency of Mg and dry matter yield in line H 514-5-5-3, and Mundo Novo IAC 376-4 an improved use efficiency of Ca and S
646. Â. Tonietto et al., “Proteomic Analysis of Developing Somatic Embryos of Coffea Arabica,” Plant Molecular Biology Reporter, vol. 30, no. 6, pp. 1393–1399, 2012. doi: 10.1007/s11105-012-0425-7. Abstract
     Differential protein profiles of three stages of somatic embryogenesis, including globular, torpedo, and cotyledonary somatic embryos, of Coffea arabica cv. Catuaí Vermelho were analyzed in an attempt to better understand somatic embryogenesis in coffee plants. Somatic embryos at these different stages of development were collected from in vitro-grown cultures, and then macerated in liquid nitrogen. Proteins were extracted with phenol and further quantified using the Bradford method. The bidimensional electrophoresis analysis revealed a wide range of proteins ranging between 10 and 160 kDa and of pH values ranging from 3 to 10. Several differentially expressed proteins were identified by mass spectrometry, and some were found to be specific to these different stages of somatic embryogenesis in coffee. The enolase and 11S storage globulin proteins, for example, could be used as molecular markers for somatic embryo development stages and for embryogenic and non-embryogenic genotype differentiation, respectively.
647. L. Toniutti et al., “An Altered Circadian Clock Coupled with a Higher Photosynthesis Efficiency Could Explain the Better Agronomic Performance of a New Coffee Clone When Compared with a Standard Variety,” International Journal of Molecular Sciences, vol. 20, no. 3, p. 736, Jan. 2019. doi: 10.3390/ijms20030736. Abstract
     In a context where climate change is threatening coffee productivity, the management of coffee leaf rust is a challenging issue. Major resistant genes, which have been used for many years, are systematically being overcome by pathogens. Developing healthy plants, able to defend themselves and be productive even when attacked by the pathogen, should be part of a more sustainable alternative approach. We compared one hybrid (GPFA124), selected for its good health in various environments including a reduced rust incidence, and the cv. ‘Caturra’, considered as a standard in terms of productivity and quality but highly susceptible to rust, for phenotypic variables and for the expression of genes involved in the circadian clock and in primary photosynthetic metabolism. The GPFA124 hybrid showed increased photosynthetic electron transport efficiency, better carbon partitioning, and higher chlorophyll content. A strong relationship exists between chlorophyll a fluorescence and the expression of genes related to the photosynthetic electron transport chain. We also showed an alteration of the amplitude of circadian clock genes in the clone. Our work also indicated that increased photosynthetic electron transport efficiency is related to the clone’s better performance. Chlorophyll a fluorescence measurement is a good indicator of the coffee tree’s physiological status for the breeder. We suggest a connection between the circadian clock and carbon metabolism in coffee tree.
648. L. Toniutti et al., “Influence of Environmental Conditions and Genetic Background of Arabica Coffee (C. Arabica L) on Leaf Rust (Hemileia Vastatrix) Pathogenesis,” Frontiers in Plant Science, vol. 8, p. 2025, 2017. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2017.02025. Abstract
     Global warming is a major threat to agriculture worldwide. Between 2008 and 2013, some coffee producing countries in South and Central America suffered from severe epidemics of coffee leaf rust (CLR), resulting in high economic losses with social implications for coffee growers. The climatic events not only favored the development of the pathogen but also affected the physiological status of the coffee plant. The main objectives of the study were to evaluate how the physiological status of the coffee plant modified by different environmental conditions impact on the pathogenesis of CLR and to identify indicators of the physiological status able to predict rust incidence. Three rust susceptible genotypes (one inbred line and two hybrids) were grown in controlled conditions with a combination of thermal regime (TR), nitrogen and light intensity close to the field situation before being inoculated with the rust fungus Hemileia vastatrix. It has been demonstrated that a TR of 27-22°C resulted in 2000 times higher sporulation than with a TR of 23–18°C. It has been also shown that high light intensity combined with low nitrogen fertilization modified the CLR pathogenesis resulting in huge sporulation. CLR sporulation was significantly lower in the F1 hybrids than in the inbred line. The hybrid vigor may have reduced disease incidence. Among the many parameters studied, parameters related to photosystem II and photosynthetic electron transport chain components appeared as indicators of the physiological status of the coffee plant able to predict rust sporulation intensity. Taken together, these results show that CLR sporulation not only depends on the TR but also on the physiological status of the coffee plant, which itself depends on agronomic conditions. Our work suggests that vigorous varieties combined with a shaded system and appropriate nitrogen fertilization should be part of an agro-ecological approach to disease control.
649. H. Toure, G. Balansard, A. M. Pauli, and A. M. Scotto, “Pharmacological Investigation of Alkaloids from Leaves of Mitragyna Inermis (Rubiaceae),” Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 54, no. 1, pp. 59–62, Oct. 1996. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(96)01446-8. Abstract
     The genus Mitragyna (Rubiacaeae) has been traditionally used in parts of Africa, Asia and Oceania. In recent years, there has been increased interest in species of Mitragyna with the introduction of products to western markets and regulatory uncertainty. This paper reviewed the traditional ethnomedicinal uses of leaves for species belonging to the genus Mitragyna with reference to the botany and known chemistry in order to highlight areas of interest for products currently being sold as kratom. A literature search was conducted using Web of Science, Google Scholar, the Royal Museum for Central Africa, Internet Archive, Hathi Trust, and Biodiversity Heritage Library search engines in the spring of 2015, fall of 2016 and winter of 2017 to document uses of bark, leaf and root material. Leaves of M. speciosa (kratom) had the most common documented ethnomedicinal uses as an opium substitute or remedy for addiction. Other species of Mitragyna were reportedly used for treating pain, however the mode of preparation was most often cited as topical application. Other uses of Mitragyna included treatment of fever, skin infections, and as a mild anxiolytic. Mitragyna species have been used medicinally in various parts of the world and that there is significant traditional evidence of use. Modern products that include formulations as topical application of liniments, balms or tinctures may provide effective alternatives for treatment of certain types of pains. Future research is required to establish safety and toxicology limits, medicinal chemistry parameters and the potential for different physiological responses among varying genetic populations to support regulatory requirements for Mitragyna spp. Oxindole alkaloids are a monoterpene group of alkaloids that exhibits an oxindole moiety (N–C═O) in ring B of the structure with either corynantheoid or ajmalicinoid analogues exhibiting tetracyclic or pentacyclic oxindole skeletons. The occurrence of this group of alkaloids in Uncaria species may be derived from the transition of heteroyohimbines (indole alkaloids) via indolenine intermediates brought about by differences in cell pH values. This group of alkaloids which is prevalent in Uncaria species but also exists in the related Mitragyna species has been largely explored in terms of their biological and pharmacological potential, in particular, immunomodulatory and CNS-related properties. The worldwide emergence of products containing these alkaloids as active ingredients for the treatment of various diseases was not only based on the ethnomedical use of Uncaria plants but are also a consequence of scientific evidence extensively documented on the plant’s extracts and isolated compounds in the last 30 years. In this review, we shall highlight the chemical, biological, and pharmacological properties of these unique alkaloids in order to reevaluate their potential for drug development and as bioactive ingredients in herbal products and preparations. In traditional medicine in Mali, extracts derived from Mitragyna inermis (Willd.) O. Kuntze (Family: Rubiaceae) are commonly used to treat malaria. The antimalarial activity and the lack of genotoxicity in vitro and in vivo have been demonstrated in previous studies. Acute and chronic evaluation of the toxicity of the hydroethanolic extract of Mitragyna inermis leaves was performed in this study, according to the recommendations (cahier de l’Agence no. 3) of the French Drug Office. Two dosages (300 mg/kg and 3 g/kg) were given in one single administration by gavage to male and female rats. No animal died and no behavioral signs of acute toxicity were observed. Chronic toxicity studies over 28 days showed no changes in body weight and no macroscopic abnormality in the 14 organs examined after the animals were sacrificed. With the 3 g/kg/d drug dosage (100-fold higher than those proposed in man), only slight histological abnormalities were observed. Statistically significant differences, compared to control animals, in the weight of some organs and the values of some haematological or biochemical parameters were observed. However, these values always remained in the range given by the breeder for naive animals of the same strain. These investigations thus seemed to indicate the safety of repeated oral administration (up to 3 g/kg/d) of the hydroethanolic extract of Mitragyna inermis leaves, which can therefore be continuously used with safety by the African population in traditional treatment of malaria. In Mali, the empirical knowledge on plant medicine is held by traditional practioners. Scientific studies have been carried on some plants and they have confirmed their local uses, but few data are available on the toxicity of Malian medicinal plants. In the present work, we record the toxic plants used as medicines in the Bamako district, Mali, with the aim to evaluate the knowledge of traditional healers and herbalists on the toxicity of the plant used. A survey was carried out on the market places in the Bamako district and 106 healers and herbalists were interviewed. A survey of the scientific literature was conducted to verify or sustain the claimed toxicological data. Nineteen plants are arranged according to their frequency of quotation based on the questionnaire. The information includes the botanical name, literature survey on the pharmacology of the plants, the healers’ knowledge on plant toxicity and its prevention by some of the healers. Aqueous extracts of Mitragyna inermis (AEMI) used traditionally as antihypertensive agents produced a concentration-dependent (0.1–3 mg/ml) ex vivo increase in cardiac contractile response and coronary flow but did not modify heart rate in the rat. Interestingly, AEMI produced relaxation in isolated porcine coronary artery at concentration up to 3 mg/ml that was exclusively dependent on the presence of endothelium. This relaxation involved partial depolarization (KCl 20, 40 mM) and NO synthase inhibitor-sensitive mechanisms but was not sensitive to the blockade of cyclo-oxygenase pathway. In contrast, the relaxant effect of AEMI was not dependent on the presence of endothelium in rat tail artery. Taken together, the present study demonstrates hypotensive, cardiotropic and vasodilatory properties of AEMI that contribute to better understanding of its beneficial effect against cardiovascular diseases. From the bark of Mitragyna inermis, two 27-nor-triterpenoid glycosides, named inermiside I (1) and II (2), were isolated and their structures determined based on extensive 2D-NMR and MS spectral analysis as 6-deoxy-β-d-glucopyranosyl-[3-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1→6)-β-d-glucopyranosyl]-pyrocincholate and 6-deoxy-β-d-glucopyranosyl-pyrocincholate, respectively. In addition, the known quinovic acid (6), 3-O-[β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl]-quinovoic acid (3),β-d-glucopyranosyl-[3-O-(β-d-glucopyranosyl)]-quinoviate (4) and cytotoxic 3-O-(β-d-6-deoxy-glucopyranosyl)-quinovic acid (5) were also isolated. Canthium henriquesianum (K. Schum) is traditionally used in Burkina Faso for the treatment of malaria, but has not been properly investigated, yet. The aim of this study was to characterize in vitro the antiplasmodial and the anti-inflammatory activity of extracts from Canthium henriquesianum (K. Schum). In parallel, extracts of Gardenia sokotensis (Hutch) and Vernonia colorata (Willd), also traditionally used together in Burkina Faso and already reported with antimalarial activity, were compared. Plant extracts were tested in vitro for antimalarial activity against chloroquine susceptible (D10) and resistant (W2) strains of Plasmodium falciparum using the lactate dehydrogenase assay. Cell cytotoxicity was assessed on human dermal fibroblast (HDF) by the MTT assay. The selectivity index (SI) was used as the ratio of the activity against the parasites compared to the toxicity of the plant extract against HDF. In vitro cytokine production was assessed by ELISA technique. Canthium henriquesianum aqueous extract had a moderate antimalarial activity (IC50<50 µg/ml) with a good selectivity index (SI=HDF/D10>7). Canthium henriquesianum diisopropyl ether extract was the most potent inhibitor of parasite growth with an IC50 9.5 µg/ml on W2 and 8.8 µg/ml on D10 and limited toxicity (SI>2). Gardenia sokotensis and Vernonia colorata aqueous extracts were shown to be significantly less active (IC50≥50 µg/ml) with substantial toxicity. In addition, when the production of IL-1β and TNFα by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or hemozoin (malaria pigment) stimulated human THP-1 monocytes was assayed, it was found that the extract of Canthium henriquesianum induced a dose-dependent inhibition of IL-1β, but not of TNFα production, thus confirming its traditional use as antipyretic. By NMR analysis, the chromone was identified as the mostly represented compound in the diisopropyl ether extract of Canthium henriquesianum. Chromone however, was less active as antimalarial than the crude extract and it did not inhibit cytokine production at not toxic doses, indicating that other molecules in the total extracts contribute to the antiplasmodial and anti-inflammatory activity. Canthium henriquesianum seems to possess antimalarial activity in vitro and the ability to inhibit the production of the pyrogenic cytokine IL-1β. Apart from the BENCHMRK study, there are no large observational experiences describing the long-term efficacy and safety of rescue regimens for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection. Antiretroviral-experienced patients with detectable viraemia starting a raltegravir (RAL)-based regimen between March 2007 and June 2009 were consecutively enrolled and followed for ≥4 years. Data were censored at Week 206 for homogeneity. Of 333 patients, 258 (77.5%) were still on RAL-based therapy at Week 206, and 241 had undetectable HIV-1 RNA (73% in intention-to-treat analysis). Of the 75 subjects who discontinued RAL therapy, 36 were lost to follow-up, 15 changed their regimen due to virological failure, 2 simplified their regimen stopping RAL, 9 stopped all antiretrovirals and 13 died. Overall, 100 subjects (30.0%) had at least one detectable viraemia, but only 32 (9.6%) had true viral failure. Seventeen patients continued their failing regimen. ‘Blips’ were experienced by 53 patients (15.9%), whilst 15 (4.5%) had confirmed viral rebound due to adherence issues and were re-suppressed upon treatment re-introduction. In a multivariate analysis of predictors of interruption or failure, each baseline HIV-1 RNA log10 increase was associated with an adjusted hazard ratio for failure of 1.6; having more than 13 previous treatment courses also emerged as a predictor. Overall, adverse events were rare (n = 64), with 13 deaths. Tumours were mainly early events, often fatal (7/15), mainly non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas (8), followed by hepatocarcinoma (2). RAL proved effective and well tolerated in this cohort, and few patients experienced viral failure after 4 years. Bioabsorbable vascular scaffolds (BVS) are made from a radiolucent material. Their multiple implantations on a single long diffused segment requires a specific technique with imaging magnification, which could cause an increase in dose delivered during percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) procedure. We aimed to identify differences in radiation dose, fluoroscopy and procedural times in Hybrid DES+ multiple BVS (Absorb, Abbott Inc., USA) implantation (hybrid metal/scaffold jacket) versus multiple III generation Drug-eluting stents (DES) (full-metal jacket) in patients with long and diffuse coronary artery disease of the left anterior descending (LAD) coronary artery. Patients with long and diffuse LAD disease were enrolled in a registry from 1st February 2015 to 1st February 2017. Patients treated with hybrid DES/BVS (at least three) jacket (n = 72 procedure) were compared with a 2:1 matched cohort of exclusive multiple overlapped DES (full-metal jacket) patients in the same period (n = 114 procedures). Patients had similar baseline characteristics due to matching. Radiation exposure (6035.7 ± 2846.8 vs 4251.1 ± 1787.3 cGy ∗ cm2, p < 0.0001, Δ = 1784.5 ± 1055.6), fluoroscopy time (16.2 ± 4.5 vs 9.1 ± 2.4, p < 0.0001) and procedure time (64.2 ± 18.5 vs 5 8.7 ± 13.5, p = 0.02) were higher in patients treated using hybrid metal/scaffold jacket compared that regular full-metal jacket. The use of hybrid metal/scaffold jacket for the treatment of long and diffuse disease of LAD is associated with a higher fluoroscopy time and radiation exposure compared to full-metal jacket, quantifiable in approximately 35%. One-color transient reflectivity measurements are carried out on two different samples of vertically aligned single-wall carbon nanotube bundles and compared with the response recently published on unaligned bundles. The negative sign of the optical response for both samples indicates that the free electron character revealed on unaligned bundles is only due to the intertube interactions favored by the tube bending. Neither the presence of bundles nor the existence of structural defects in aligned bundles is able to induce a free-electron like behavior of the photoexcited carriers. This result is also confirmed by the presence of non-linear excitonic effects in the transient response of the aligned bundles. The uncertainties in meteor radar data and the problem of hyperbolic meteors are interconnected. Meteor orbital data, obtained by the Meteor Automatic Radar System (MARS) at the Kharkiv Institute of Radio Electronics, Ukraine, was used to develop the algorithm to determine the uncertainties of the orbital elements obtained by radar systems such as MARS. We have constructed the empirical model of the distribution of uncertainties in the orbital elements of meteor radar data. MARS had a high effective sensitivity (the limiting magnitude of observed meteors was close to 12 M̂) and was capable to carry out comprehensive geophysical and astronomical studies of meteors. When we register meteor numbers, radiants, meteoroid velocities, we can talk about astronomical observations. The main objective of meteor astronomy research is to determine the orbit of the meteoroid, in other words, to study a meteoroid as an astronomical object of the Solar System. Sometimes meteoroids may have an interstellar origin. Such meteoroids usually have hyperbolic orbits (i.e. with eccentricities e>1). However, hyperbolic orbits of meteoroids may have another origin, e.g. arise due to errors of observations (primarily due to the errors of eccentricities – σe). To correctly interpret the astronomical data, it is necessary to know how the errors are calculated. In this paper, we estimated the uncertainties in the Kharkiv meteor radar data (the average σe ~0.2) and discussed their connection to the problem of hyperbolic meteors. We obtained ~0.8% of total number of meteoroid orbits in 1975, which we named “real” hyperboles, i.e. with eccentricities more or equal 1+2σe. To study the chemical constituents and bioactivity of the stem bark of Mitragyna diversifolia. Compounds were isolated by various chromatographic methods. Their structures were elucidated on the basis of spectroscopic techniques (IR, UV, MS, and NMR), and they were evaluated for their cytotoxic activities by the MTT method. Eight triterpenes were isolated and identified as 3α, 6β, 19α-trihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid (1), 3β, 6β, 19α-trihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid (2), 3-oxo-6β-19α-dihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid (3), 3β, 6β, 19α-trihydroxy-urs-12-en-24, 28-dioic acid 24-methyl ester (4), 3β, 6β, 19α, 24-tetrahydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid (5), rotundic acid (6), 23-nor-24-exomethylene- 3β, 6β, 19α-trihydroxy-urs-12-en-28-oic acid (7), and pololic acid (8), respectively. All of the isolates were tested against two human tumor cell lines, MCF-7 (breast) and HT-29 (colon). Compound 1 was a new triterpene. Compounds 5 − 7 exhibited potent inhibitory effects on the growth of MCF-7 and HT-29 cells, and the others showed no cytotoxicity.
650. H. T. M. Tran, C. A. C. Vargas, L. Slade Lee, A. Furtado, H. Smyth, and R. Henry, “Variation in Bean Morphology and Biochemical Composition Measured in Different Genetic Groups of Arabica Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.),” Tree Genetics & Genomes, vol. 13, no. 3, p. 54, Apr. 2017. doi: 10.1007/s11295-017-1138-8. Abstract
     The narrow genetic base of commercial arabica resulting from intensive selection for quality during domestication and self-pollination has been well documented, raising the need for new diverse germplasm sources. Beans of 232 diverse arabica coffee accessions originating from 27 countries were harvested from the germplasm collection at CATIE, Costa Rica. Substantial variation was observed for bean morphology including 100 bean weight, bean length, width, thickness and bulk density. Non-volatiles including caffeine and trigonelline were analysed and showed larger variation in range than has previously been reported. Results of targeted analysis of 18 volatiles from 35 accessions also showed significant variation, with coefficients of variation from 140% for 4-vinylguaiacol to 62% for geraniol. There were strong correlations between some volatile compounds, suggesting that representative volatiles used in selection would save analytical costs. However, no strong correlation was found between bean morphology and the levels of non-volatile or volatile compounds, implying that it is difficult to select for low or high composition of these compounds based on bean physical characteristics. Utilizing the large variation observed for bean morphology and biochemical traits, it should be possible to select for desirable combinations of traits in arabica coffee breeding.
651. A. C. Trevisani et al., “A Systematic Literature Review of the Potential Therapeutic Effects of Ayahuasca Tea Prepared From the Use of Banisteriopsis Caapi and Psychotria Viridis,” 2020. doi: 10.5296/jas.v9i1.17910. Abstract
     This study aims to carry out a literature review of scientific articles (PubMed, Scielo and LILACS) in order to gather knowledge within 30 years of study about the therapeutic potentials of ayahuasca. Ayahuasca is a drink of indigenous origin made as a decoction obtained from medicinal plants found mainly in Acre, state of Brazil, which are the leaves of Psychtoria viridis, popularly known as “chacrona” in Brazil, and the stem of Banisteriopsis caapi, commonly known as mariri or jagube. The decoction is used in religious practices for the therapy of diseases that affect the human being, such as psychological disorders, neurological, parasitic and bacterial infections. Considering the existing bioactive compounds and the therapeutic potential of ayahuasca, this study aims to carry out a literature review of scientific articles (PubMed, Scielo and LILACS) in order to gather knowledge within 30 years of study about the therapeutic potentials of ayahuasca. In the current literature, the studies focus on the area of neuropsychology, dealing with ayahuasca as a form of therapy for neurological and neuromotor disorders. In addition, antimicrobial, antiparasitic, immunomodulatory, and antioxidant actions have already been reported. However, new studies are still needed in these areas in order to evaluate the efficacy and safety of ayahuasca and its component plant species, in order to use it as an alternative therapy, especially in the population from which the traditional knowledge about this beverage came from. Journal of Agricultural Studies ISSN 2166-0379 2021, Vol. 9, No. 1 http://jas.macrothink.org 114
652. R. Trevizan, J. C. F. Cardoso, C. P. Coelho, H. Consolaro, M. T. Furtado, and P. E. Oliveira, “Inaccuracy Patterns and Precise Pollination among Distylous Palicourea and Psychotria (Rubiaceae),” Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, vol. 53, p. 125645, Dec. 2021. doi: 10.1016/j.ppees.2021.125645. Abstract
     Heterostyly is a polymorphism in which populations comprise two (distyly) or three (tristyly) floral morphs with reciprocal positioning of the height of the anthers and stigmas (reciprocal herkogamy). Such reciprocal herkogamy permits precise pollen placement on pollinators’ bodies and pollination success by promoting disassortative pollen transfer between floral morphs. Here, we aimed to understand how the different components of reciprocity relate to and differ from each other in distylous flowers, and whether factors, such as genus, morph-ratio variation, and corolla tube length influence the imprecisions in the sexual organs within populations. We gathered literature and original morphometrics data comprising 98 Palicourea and Psychotria populations from 44 species, the two largest distylous Rubiaceae genera, which differ in some floral features and pollination systems (hummingbirds vs. insects, respectively). We estimated reciprocity using new inaccuracy indices and standardization techniques, which allowed comparisons among a wide array of populations. Our results showed that maladaptive bias (i.e. departure from optimum reciprocity) of low organs was higher than the other decomposed inaccuracies indices tested. In addition, inaccuracy of low organs was higher than those of high organs. We did not find any relation of either genus, morph-ratio variation, or corolla tube length on general inaccuracy measurements. Apparently, pollinator-mediated selection on floral traits, imposed by different pollinators groups, did not differ markedly among the studied distylous Rubiaceae. This is the first study on inaccuracy components for such an ample array of populations and provides insights on the relative importance of morphological traits that optimize the functionality of distyly. We highlight the applicability of using standardized reciprocity indices for cross populational investigations, which may both support previous insights and reveal unknown patterns in distylous plants.
653. C. Tungphatthong, S. K. J. Urumarudappa, S. Awachai, T. Sooksawate, and S. Sukrong, “Differentiation of Mitragyna Speciosa, a Narcotic Plant, From Allied Mitragyna Species Using DNA Barcoding-High-Resolution Melting (Bar-HRM) Analysis,” 2020. doi: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-109985/v1. Abstract
     This study reveals that DNA barcoding coupled with HRM is an efficient tool with which to identify M. speciosa-containing samples and ensure the safety and quality of traditional Thai herbal medicines. Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil. [MS], or “kratom” in Thai, is the only narcotic species among the four species of Mitragyna in Thailand, which also include Mitragyna diversifolia (Wall. ex G. Don) Havil. [MD], Mitragyna hirsuta Havil. [MH], and Mitragyna rotundifolia (Roxb.) O. Kuntze [MR]. M. speciosa is a tropical tree belonging to the Rubiaceae family and has been prohibited by law in Thailand. However, it has been extensively covered in national and international news, as its abuse has become more popular. M. speciosa is a narcotic plant and has been used as an opium substitute and traditionally used for the treatment of chronic pain and various illnesses. Due to morphological disparities in the genus, the identification of plants in various forms, including fresh leaves, dried leaf powder, and finished products, is difficult. In this study, DNA barcoding combined with high-resolution melting (Bar-HRM) analysis was performed to differentiate M. speciosa from allied Mitragyna and to assess the capability of Bar-HRM assays to identify M. speciosa in suspected kratom or M. speciosa-containing samples. Bar-HRM analysis of PCR amplicons was based on the ITS2, rbcL, trnH-psbA, and matK DNA barcode regions. The melting profiles of ITS2 amplicons were clearly distinct, which enabled the authentication and differentiation of Mitragyna species from allied species. This study reveals that DNA barcoding coupled with HRM is an efficient tool with which to identify M. speciosa and M. speciosa-containing samples and ensure the safety and quality of traditional Thai herbal medicines.
654. C. Tungphatthong, T. Phadungcharoen, T. Sooksawate, and S. Sukrong, “PCR Combined with Lateral Flow Immunochromatographic Assay to Differentiate the Narcotic Mitragyna Speciosa from Related Species and Detect It in Forensic Evidence,” Forensic Science International, vol. 331, p. 111149, Feb. 2022. doi: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2021.111149. Abstract
     Plants in the genus Mitragyna (Rubiaceae) are used in traditional medicine because of their broad therapeutic activity. Four Mitragyna species, M. speciosa (Roxb.) Korth. (MS), M. rotundifolia (Roxb.) Kuntze (MR), M. diversifolia (Wall. ex G. Don) Havil. (MD), and M. hirsuta Havil. (MH), occur in Thailand. M. speciosa, commonly known as ‘Kratom’ in Thai, is the only narcotic species for which buying, selling, importing or possessing has been prohibited by law in Thailand and some other countries. Mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine, the major psychoactive compounds, are important in the treatment of opioid withdrawal. However, this species is used in traditional medicine to relieve pain and inflammation. Consequently, a rapid and easy technique for differentiating M. speciosa from closely related species is needed for routine forensic analysis. In this study, polymerase chain reaction coupled with lateral flow immunochromatographic assay (PCR-LFA) based on matK was developed for the detection of M. speciosa in forensic specimens. Duplex primers (MS-F-FAM, Ctrl-F-DIG and Ctrl-R-Biotin) were designed based on species-specific nucleotide indels observed exclusively in the matK sequences of M. speciosa. Positive results for M. speciosa are indicated by the clear presence of three black lines on the lateral flow cassette. Forensic samples were investigated, and the three black test lines indicating M. speciosa were observed for seven of eight specimens. PCR-LFA has been proven to be fast, easy and efficient for detecting the narcotic M. speciosa and could be developed as a rapid forensic diagnostic technique for other plants.
655. K. W. Tupper, “The Globalization of Ayahuasca: Harm Reduction or Benefit Maximization?,” International Journal of Drug Policy, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 297–303, Aug. 2008. doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2006.11.001. Abstract
     Ayahuasca is a tea made from two plants native to the Amazon, Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis, which, respectively, contain the psychoactive chemicals harmala alkaloids and dimethyltryptamine. The tea has been used by indigenous peoples in countries such as Brazil, Ecuador and Peru for medicinal, spiritual and cultural purposes since pre-Columbian times. In the 20th century, ayahuasca spread beyond its native habitat and has been incorporated into syncretistic practices that are being adopted by non-indigenous peoples in modern Western contexts. Ayahuasca’s globalization in the past few decades has led to a number of legal cases which pit religious freedom against national drug control laws. This paper explores some of the philosophical and policy implications of contemporary ayahuasca use. It addresses the issue of the social construction of ayahuasca as a medicine, a sacrament and a “plant teacher.” Issues of harm reduction with respect to ayahuasca use are explored, but so too is the corollary notion of “benefit maximization.”
656. I. M. Turner and V. S. Kumar, “Flora of Singapore Precursors, 4. A Summary of Scandent Psychotria (Rubiaceae) in Singapore and Peninsular Malaysia,” Phytotaxa, vol. 361, no. 2, pp. 183–197, Jul. 2018. doi: 10.11646/phytotaxa.361.2.4. Abstract
     A total of 18 species of Psychotria with a climbing and/or hemi-epiphytic habit are enumerated as native to Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. This number includes one newly described species, Psychotria deltata, known from Johore and Singapore; and one taxon raised to species rank, Psychotria euosma (based on Psychotria sarmentosa var. montana). A new record for Psychotria serpens from Peninsular Malaysia is presented, and a number of collections are tentatively placed in Psychotria chartacea, a species from Peninsular Thailand. Four species are added to the list of native taxa for Singapore. Psychotria kunstleri is synonymised with Psychotria ridleyi and P. cantleyi is reduced to P. scortechinii. Lectotypes are designated for nearly all names applied to climbing Psychotria taxa for Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore including the Linnaean species P. serpens.
657. I. Ujvary, “Kratom and Other Mitragynines: The Chemistry and Pharmacology of Opioids from a Non-Opium Source,” Journal of Addiction Research & Therapy, vol. 06, no. 01, 2015. doi: 10.4172/2155-6105.1000214.
658. P. Vaast, R. J. Zasoski, and C. S. Bledsoe, “Effects of Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Inoculation at Different Soil P Availabilities on Growth and Nutrient Uptake of in Vitro Propagated Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Plants,” Mycorrhiza, vol. 6, no. 6, pp. 493–497, Feb. 1997. doi: 10.1007/s005720050153. Abstract
     In a pot experiment, the growth and the nutrient status of in vitro propagated coffee (Coffea arabica L.) microcuttings were investigated for 5 months following vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) inoculation with either Acaulospora melleae or Glomus clarum at four soil P availabilities. Control plants remained P-deficient even at the highest soil P availability while mycorrhizal plants were P-sufficient at all soil P availabilities. Growth of control plants was only improved at the highest soil P availability. In P-deficient soil, neither of the two VAM species improved plant growth. Plant growth increased by 50% following inoculation with either A. melleae or G. clarum when P availability went from deficient to low. No further plant growth improvement was induced by either VAM species at intermediate and high soil P levels. Nevertheless, growth of plants inoculated with G. clarum was still significantly greater than that of non-mycorrhizal plants at the highest soil P availability. Root colonization by G. clarum increased with increasing soil P availability while root colonization by A. mellea decreased with soil P level increasing above low P availability. Soil P availability also affected Zn nutrition through its influence on VAM symbiosis. With increasing soil P availability, foliar Zn status increased with G. clarum or decreased with A. mellea in parallel to root colonization by VAM. This study demonstrates the beneficial effects of VAM inoculation on in vitro propagated Arabica coffee microcuttings, as shown previously for seedlings. This study also demonstrates differences in tolerance to soil P availability between VAM species, most likely resulting from their differing abilities to enhance coffee foliar P status.
659. Y. C. Valdés, M. R. Shukla, M. E. González Vega, and P. K. Saxena, “Improved Conservation of Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) Germplasm via Micropropagation and Cryopreservation,” Agronomy, vol. 11, no. 9, p. 1861, Sep. 2021. doi: 10.3390/agronomy11091861. Abstract
     Coffee (Coffea spp.) is an important tropical agricultural crop that has significant economic and social importance in the world. The ex situ conservation of plant genetic resources through seeds is not feasible due to the sensitivity of coffee seed to desiccation and low temperatures. The cryopreservation of zygotic embryos may allow for an efficient and long-term storage of coffee germplasm. This study describes the cryopreservation methods for conserving zygotic embryos of Coffea arabica L. for the long-term conservation of currently available germplasm. Zygotic embryos were successfully cryopreserved in liquid nitrogen at −196 °C under controlled environmental conditions with either droplet-vitrification or encapsulation–vitrification protocols without dehydration. Zygotic embryos had the highest regrowth (100%) following droplet-vitrification cryopreservation using the Plant Vitrification Solution 3 (PVS3) for 40 min at 23 °C. In the case of encapsulation–vitrification using PVS3 for 40 min at 23 °C, the embryo regeneration response was 78%. Plantlets were recovered following shoot multiplication using a temporary immersion system (TIS) and in vitro rooting. The prolific rooting of shoots was observed after 4 weeks of culture in the liquid medium with plugs made of the inert substrate Oasis® In vitro Express (IVE) compared to the semi-solid medium. The successful cryopreservation of coffee zygotic embryos using droplet vitrification and encapsulation–vitrification followed by micropropagation in temporary immersion culture system has not been reported earlier and together these technologies are anticipated to further facilitate the initiatives for the conservation and distribution of coffee germplasm.
660. I. F. M. VALIO, “Germination of Coffee Seeds (Coffea Arabica L. Cv. Mundo Novo),” Journal of Experimental Botany, vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 983–991, Oct. 1976. doi: 10.1093/jxb/27.5.983. Abstract
     The life-span of coffee seeds is extended when seeds are stored with high moisture content. Germination in darkness is always higher than in the light. Exogenous gibberellic acid and abscisic acid inhibit germination while kinetin reverses this inhibitory effect. Low levels of endogenous gibberellin- and abscisic acid-like and high levels of cytokinin-like substances favour germination while the opposite combination of regulators delays germination.
661. I. F. M. Valio, “Inhibition of Germination of Coffee Seeds (Coffea Arabica L. Cv. Mundo Novo) Byt the Endocarp,” Journal of Seed Technology, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 32–39, 1980. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23432771. Abstract
     When coffee seeds are in an environment which does not contain microorganisms the endocarp inhibits germination. This inhibition is neither due to impermeability to water and gases nor to the presence of growth inhibitors but is probably caused by mechanical resistance.
662. H. van der Vossen, B. Bertrand, and A. Charrier, “Next Generation Variety Development for Sustainable Production of Arabica Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.): A Review,” Euphytica, vol. 204, no. 2, pp. 243–256, Jul. 2015. doi: 10.1007/s10681-015-1398-z. Abstract
     Arabica coffees (60 % of current world coffee production) are generally sold at considerably better prices than robustas on account of superior beverage quality. However, costs of production are much higher, mainly due to more stringent demands for soil and climatic conditions, crop management, primary processing and control of several pests and diseases including the potentially very destructive coffee leaf rust (CLR) and berry disease (CBD). Breeding for disease resistance in combination with vigour, productivity and quality started in the early 1920s in India, but especially in the second half of the 20th century comprehensive breeding programmes have been implemented in several other coffee producing countries. Many of the resulting CLR- and CBD + CLR-resistant cultivars (true-breeding lines and F1 hybrids) meet the required standards of profitable and sustainable crop production. Challenges of more recent date include limited access to additional genetic resources of Coffea arabica, breakdown of host resistance to CLR, aggravating insect pest problems and the increasingly negative impact of climate change on arabica coffee production worldwide. This review discusses prospects of breeding and disseminating next generation (hybrid) cultivars of arabica coffee for sustainable coffee production under changing conditions of diseases, pests and climate. International networking on coffee breeding will facilitate sharing of resources (financial, genetic) and scientific information, application of genomics-assisted selection technologies, and pre-breeding for specific characters. Breeding and multiplication of new cultivars well adapted to the local environment will continue to be carried out at national or regional levels. A tree crop like arabica coffee does not lend itself to centralized variety development and dissemination on a global scale.
663. M. van Oijen, J. Dauzat, J.-M. Harmand, G. Lawson, and P. Vaast, “Coffee Agroforestry Systems in Central America: II. Development of a Simple Process-Based Model and Preliminary Results,” Agroforestry Systems, vol. 80, no. 3, pp. 361–378, Nov. 2010. doi: 10.1007/s10457-010-9291-1. Abstract
     Research on coffee agroforestry systems in Central America has identified various environmental factors, management strategies and plant characteristics that affect growth, yield and the impact of the systems on the environment. Much of this literature is not quantitative, and it remains difficult to optimise growing area selection, shade tree use and management. To assist in this optimisation we developed a simple dynamic model of coffee agroforestry systems. The model includes the physiology of vegetative and reproductive growth of coffee plants, and its response to different growing conditions. This is integrated into a plot-scale model of coffee and shade tree growth which includes competition for light, water and nutrients and allows for management treatments such as spacing, thinning, pruning and fertilising. Because of the limited availability of quantitative information, model parameterisation remains fraught with uncertainty, but model behaviour seems consistent with observations. We show examples of how the model can be used to examine trade-offs between increasing coffee and tree productivity, and between maximising productivity and limiting the impact of the system on the environment.
664. A. M. Varani et al., “The Complete Organellar Genomes of the Entheogenic Plant Psychotria Viridis (Rubiaceae), a Main Component of the Ayahuasca Brew,” PeerJ, vol. 10, p. e14114, Oct. 2022. doi: 10.7717/peerj.14114. Abstract
     Psychotria viridis (Rubioideae: Rubiaceae), popularly known as chacrona, is commonly found as a shrub in the Amazon region and is well-known to produce psychoactive compounds, such as the N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT). Together with the liana Banisteropsis caapi, P. viridis is one of the main components of the Amerindian traditional, entheogenic beverage known as ayahuasca. In this work, we assembled and annotated the organellar genomes (ptDNA and mtDNA), presenting the first genomics resources for this species. The P. viridis ptDNA exhibits 154,106 bp, encoding all known ptDNA gene repertoire found in angiosperms. The Psychotria genus is a complex paraphyletic group, and according to phylogenomic analyses, P. viridis is nested in the Psychotrieae clade. Comparative ptDNA analyses indicate that most Rubiaceae plastomes present conserved ptDNA structures, often showing slight differences at the junction sites of the major four regions (LSC-IR-SSC). For the mitochondrion, assembly graph-based analysis supports a complex mtDNA organization, presenting at least two alternative and circular mitogenomes structures exhibiting two main repeats spanning 24 kb and 749 bp that may symmetrically isomerize the mitogenome into variable arrangements and isoforms. The circular mtDNA sequences (615,370 and 570,344 bp) encode almost all plant mitochondrial genes (except for the ccmC, rps7, rps10, rps14, rps19, rpl2 and rpl16 that appears as pseudogenes, and the absent genes sdh3, rps2, rsp4, rsp8, rps11, rpl6, and rpl10), showing slight variations related to exclusive regions, ptDNA integration, and relics of previous events of LTR-RT integration. The detection of two mitogenomes haplotypes is evidence of heteroplasmy as observed by the complex organization of the mitochondrial genome using graph-based analysis. Taken together, these results elicit the primary insights into the genome biology and evolutionary history of Psychotria viridis and may be used to aid strategies for conservation of this sacred, entheogenic species.
665. C. Vargas-Segura, E. López-Gamboa, E. Araya-Valverde, M. Valdez-Melara, and A. Gatica-Arias, “Sensitivity of Seeds to Chemical Mutagens, Detection of DNA Polymorphisms and Agro-Metrical Traits in M1 Generation of Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.),” Journal of Crop Science and Biotechnology, vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 451–464, Dec. 2019. doi: 10.1007/s12892-019-0175-0. Abstract
     Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.) is threatened by biotic and abiotic stresses. Nevertheless, the breeding of Arabica coffee is restricted due to its low genetic diversity. Crop improvement via mutagenesis represents an alternative for increasing genetic variability and facilitating breeding. In this sense, coffee seeds cv. Catuaí were treated for 8 h with a solution of sodium azide (NaN3) (0, 50, 75, 100, and 125 mM) and ethyl methane sulfonate (EMS) (0, 80, 160, 240, 320, and 400 mM). The genetic variability induced in coffee plants after mutagenic treatment with sodium azide was determined by RAPD and AFLP analyses. As the concentration of applied NaN3 and EMS increased, the germination, seedling height, and root length decreased. The LD50 values for NaN3 and EMS were between 50-75 mM and 160-240 mM, respectively. For the 12 RAPD primers evaluated, a total of 46 fragments were obtained of which 34 were polymorphic bands (74%). The amplification with six AFLP selective primer combinations allowed the identification of 36 polymorphisms (17.8%). The analysis revealed that both NaN3 and EMS induced variability within the DNA regions amplified with AFLP and RAPD markers. Finally, under field conditions, significant differences were noticed with respect to plant height, number of nodes in the orthotropic stem, and number of branches of the M1 mutant (NaN3-treated) plants compared to the non-mutant plants. Optimal conditions for NaN3 and EMS mutagenesis using seeds were determined and the optimized conditions have been used to generate a NaN3 mutant M1 coffee var. Catuaí population.
666. N. Vasquez, K. Salazar, F. Anthony, N. Chabrillange, F. Engelmann, and S. Dussert, “Variability in Response of Seeds to Liquid Nitrogen Exposure in Wild Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.),” Seed Science and Technology, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 293–301, Jul. 2005. doi: 10.15258/sst.2005.33.2.03. Abstract
     In order to investigate the intraspecific variability for tolerance to liquid nitrogen (LN) exposure of coffee (Coffea arabica) seeds, seed and embryo viability after desiccation or desiccation and cooling to −196°C, with or without controlled rehydration of seeds after thawing, has been studied within a core subset of 30 accessions of the CATIE field genebank. A high variability for seed sensitivity to LN exposure was observed: seed viability after cryopreservation varied from 0 to 74% among the accessions studied (0 to 100% when expressed in percentage of the desiccation control) and was not correlated to seed size, seed water content after desiccation, or seed and embryo viability after desiccation. By contrast, no variability was found between the genotypes studied for embryo viability after LN exposure. Viability of embryos after cryopreservation was always very high, indicating that, when occurring, the decline or loss of seed viability after LN exposure was due to damages to the endosperm only. Controlled post-thaw rehydration of seeds, through a 6-week osmoconditioning treatment with a −1.25 MPa polyethylene glycol solution, dramatically increased viability of frozen seeds. However, this effect was variable within the accessions studied and independent of seed viability after desiccation or desiccation and LN exposure.
667. R. Veeramohan et al., “Metabolomics Data of Mitragyna Speciosa Leaf Using LC-ESI-TOF-MS,” Data in Brief, vol. 18, pp. 1212–1216, Apr. 2018. doi: 10.1016/j.dib.2018.04.001. Abstract
     Mitragyna speciosa is a psychoactive plant known as “ketum” in Malaysia and “kratom” in Thailand. This plant is distinctly known to produce two important alkaloids, namely mitragynine (MG) and 7-hydroxymitragynine (7-OH-MG) that can bind to opioid receptors [1]. MG was reported to exhibit antidepressant properties in animal studies [2]. These compounds were also proposed to have the potential to replace opioid analgesics with much lower risks of side effects [3]. To date, there are only over 40 metabolites identified in M. speciosa [4,5]. To obtain a more complete profile of secondary metabolites in ketum, we performed metabolomics study using mature leaves of the green M. speciosa variety. The leaf samples were extracted using methanol prior to liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-time of flight-mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-TOF-MS) analysis. This data can be useful to for the identification of unknown metabolites that are associated with alkaloid biosynthesis pathway in M. speciosa.
668. M. Vega, P. R. Jenqui, Y. C. Valdés, J. L. Espino, and M. F. Viva, “Effect of Bioenraiz® as Stimulant of Coffee Plants (Coffea Arabica L.) Germination and the Development.,” Cultivos Tropicales, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 71–77, 2015. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Effect-of-Bioenraiz%C2%AE-as-stimulant-of-coffee-plants-Vega-Jenqui/4ec267f29feed759bc1aa04ad8bf4c7fdc282c1b. Abstract
     The effect of Bioenraiz® in germination and plants growth during the process of plants coffee obtaining of “Caturra rojo” (Coffea arabica L.) was studied and contributed from the economic point of view, to the recovery of coffee in Cuba. Biotechnological methods for obtaining of efficient products, from bacterias with beneficent properties, represent an alternative of interest for the development of economical important crops in the context of a sustainable agriculture. The effect of Bioenraiz® in germination and plants growth during the process of plants coffee obtaining of “Caturra rojo” (Coffea arabica L.) was studied. Three concentrations of the biopreparation: 200, 220 and 230 mL L-1 and a Control were evaluated. The application was carried out before the inoculation of the seeds through the imbibitions for 20 min and when the first pair of leaves was reached. The germination was evaluated 50 and 60 days after the inoculation. The height, diameter of shaft, pair of leaves and dry mass were evaluated to the seven months. Differences in the answer to the germination for both periods were evidenced, the best treatment was that of 200 mL L-1 of Bioenraiz®, where 79,4 and 94,5 %, respectively were obtained. Seeds treated with the biopreparation originated plants that showed significant differences with the control for the evaluated variables, effect that is attributed to the chemical composition of the biopreparation that is characterized by not causing adverse alterations in the ecological environment. The results contributed from the economic point of view, to the recovery of coffee in Cuba, achieving plantation material with natural products and the required quality.
669. M. E. G. Vega, Y. C. Valdés, and A. H. Rodríguez, “Obtaining of cell suspensions and somatic embryos of coffee (Coffea canephora P.) using of bacterial metabolites,” Revista Colombiana de Biotecnología, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 123–131, 2011. https://revistas.unal.edu.co/index.php/biotecnologia/article/view/22981. Abstract
     The somatic embryogenesis is important as model system to study the development of physiologic and molecular events that sustain the embryogenesis in plants, is an appropriate system for the massive propagation of vegetable species and as tool for the genetic improvement, the germplasm conservation and the validation of new biological products and to facilitate the multiplication to great scale through the culture in liquid medium, as well as application in bioreactores, providing high multiplication frequency, quick growth of the embryo, easiness of absorption of nutritious and reduction of the subculturing. In this paper the somatic embryogenesis was used to evaluate the effect of bacterial compounds in the induction of cellular suspensions and somatic embryos in three coffee genotypes of Coffea canephora P. var. Robusta. Were studied inoculo densities among 0.2, 0.5, 1.0 and 3.0 gMF/L-1 and the effect of different culture medium in the development of the process. The results showed a behavior differed in the genotype M-28, in medium culture with conventional regulators of growth and the alternatives. Strong relationship was evidenced between the cellular viability and the number of cells, in the different cultivation conditions and according to the inoculo density, a wide range of size and forms as observed in the populations of somatic embryos. The conversion percentages with the medium MDE-2, evidenced improvements of this indicator for the coffee.
670. L. R. Venial et al., “Autotetraploid Coffea Canephora and Auto-Alloctaploid Coffea Arabica From In Vitro Chromosome Set Doubling: New Germplasms for Coffea,” Frontiers in Plant Science, vol. 11, p. 154, Mar. 2020. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2020.00154. Abstract
     Polyploidy is more than two chromosomal sets per nucleus, as the allotetraploid Coffea arabica. Due to allotetraploidy, C. arabica shows different phenotypes compare to diploid Coffea species, highlighting by beverage quality produced from its grains. Looking for the possibility of new phenotypes coupled with economic feature, considerable progress since 60’s was reached for synthetic chromosome set doubling (CSD) in vitro, involving especially the antitubulin compounds, biological material, and used tissue culture pathway as the indirect somatic embryogenesis (ISE). Here, we aimed to regenerate autotetraploid and auto-alloctaploid plantlets of Coffea canephora and C. arabica, respectively, from a novel in vitro CSD procedure for Coffea. Exploring the ISE pathway, we treated the cellular aggregate suspensions (CAS) with 0.0 (control), 0.5, 1.5, or 2.5 mM of colchicine solution for 48, 72, or 96 h and maintained in liquid medium under constant orbital shaking. After transferring the CAS to semisolid media for somatic embryo regeneration, we considered it as cellular mass. Mature cotyledonary somatic embryos were only regenerated from cellular masses treated with 2.5 mM/48 h and 2.5 mM/72 h for C. canephora and with 0.5 mM/48 h for C. arabica. Evaluating the DNA ploidy level and the chromosome counting revealed that 36 (34.9%) plantlets of C. canephora were autotetraploids (4C = 2.86 pg, 2n = 4x = 44) and 61 (21.1%) of C. arabica were auto-alloctaploids (4C = 5.24 pg, 2n = 8x = 88). The CSD procedure, exploring the CAS proliferation and ISE pathway, promoted whole-genome duplication and resulted in a relatively high number of solid polyploids of both Coffea species. Due to distinct responses, DNA sequence fidelity (genetic) and global level of 5-methylcytosine (epigenetic) were evaluated. We observed that the increase of 5-methylcytosine levels was associated with somatic embryo regeneration from cells showing DNA sequence fidelity for the tested SSR primers. In conclusion, the adopted procedure for in vitro CSD is reproducible for induction, regeneration and propagation of Coffea polyploids and potentially other shrubbery and woody species. In view of the novelty of this procedure to generate new germplasm, we show the key issues and the steps of the CSD procedure.
671. S. Venter and S. Venter, “Psychotria Corrugata (Rubiaceae, Psychotrieae), a New Species from the Hindenburg Wall, Western Province, Papua New Guinea,” Australian Systematic Botany, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 134–138, May 2019. doi: 10.1071/SB18012. Abstract
     Psychotria corrugata S.Venter is newly described from the Hindenburg Wall area in the Star Mountains of Papua New Guinea. It can easily be distinguished from other Psychotria species by the curved, narrow, coriaceous and corrugated leaves, contracted panicle and papillate corolla lobes.
672. L. Verotta, F. Peterlongo, E. Elisabetsky, T. A. Amador, and D. S. Nunes, “High-Performance Liquid Chromatography–Diode Array Detection–Tandem Mass Spectrometry Analyses of the Alkaloid Extracts of Amazon Psychotria species11Part of This Work Was Presented at the 39th Annual Meeting of the American Society of Pharmacognosy, Orlando, FL, 19–24 July 1998.,” Journal of Chromatography A, vol. 841, no. 2, pp. 165–176, May 1999. doi: 10.1016/S0021-9673(99)00298-8. Abstract
     High-performance liquid chromatography paired with UV photodiode array, electrospray MS–MS and thermospray MS detectors was investigated as a method for the analysis of alkaloids in different parts of Psychotria spp. collected in the Amazon. Nine products have been isolated from the vegetable material and their structures elucidated by spectroscopic means. These constituents indicate pyrrolidinoindoline and quinoline alkaloid classes. Minor components were also assigned through MS fragmentations. Place and period of collections of the plant materials are responsible for both qualitative and quantitative variations with respect to pyrrolidinoindoline and quinoline type alkaloids.
673. L. Verotta, T. Pilati, M. Tatò, E. Elisabetsky, T. A. Amador, and D. S. Nunes, “Pyrrolidinoindoline Alkaloids from Psychotria Colorata,” Journal of Natural Products, vol. 61, no. 3, pp. 392–396, Mar. 1998. doi: 10.1021/np9701642.
674. R. Viani, “Effect of Processing on Ochratoxin A (OTA) Content of Coffee,” Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol. 504, pp. 189–193, 2002. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4615-0629-4_19. Abstract
     Coffee production can be roughly separated into three main steps 1) cherry processing to green coffee beans, 2) storage and transportation of green coffee to the place of consumption, and 3) green coffee processing to roasted and ground coffee and soluble coffee. The mold species which are known to produce ochratoxin A (OTA) in coffee have been identified as Aspergillus ochraceus, A. carbonarius and occasionally, A. niger. The length of time spent at a water activity > 0.80 at any moment until roasting defines the risk of mold growth and OTA production. However, the specific moment and locus of contamination have not yet been clearly identified. Since coffee husks are a significant source of OTA contamination, cleaning and grading of green coffee are effective methods for reducing OTA levels in coffee. During the process of converting green coffee to roasted and soluble coffees, up to 90% reduction in OTA levels can occur.
675. R. O. Vidal et al., “A High-Throughput Data Mining of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms in Coffea Species Expressed Sequence Tags Suggests Differential Homeologous Gene Expression in the Allotetraploid Coffea Arabica,” Plant Physiology, vol. 154, no. 3, pp. 1053–1066, Nov. 2010. doi: 10.1104/pp.110.162438. Abstract
     Polyploidization constitutes a common mode of evolution in flowering plants. This event provides the raw material for the divergence of function in homeologous genes, leading to phenotypic novelty that can contribute to the success of polyploids in nature or their selection for use in agriculture. Mounting evidence underlined the existence of homeologous expression biases in polyploid genomes; however, strategies to analyze such transcriptome regulation remained scarce. Important factors regarding homeologous expression biases remain to be explored, such as whether this phenomenon influences specific genes, how paralogs are affected by genome doubling, and what is the importance of the variability of homeologous expression bias to genotype differences. This study reports the expressed sequence tag assembly of the allopolyploid Coffea arabica and one of its direct ancestors, Coffea canephora. The assembly was used for the discovery of single nucleotide polymorphisms through the identification of high-quality discrepancies in overlapped expressed sequence tags and for gene expression information indirectly estimated by the transcript redundancy. Sequence diversity profiles were evaluated within C. arabica (Ca) and C. canephora (Cc) and used to deduce the transcript contribution of the Coffea eugenioides (Ce) ancestor. The assignment of the C. arabica haplotypes to the C. canephora (CaCc) or C. eugenioides (CaCe) ancestral genomes allowed us to analyze gene expression contributions of each subgenome in C. arabica. In silico data were validated by the quantitative polymerase chain reaction and allele-specific combination TaqMAMA-based method. The presence of differential expression of C. arabica homeologous genes and its implications in coffee gene expression, ontology, and physiology are discussed.
676. C. Viegas et al., “Fungal Contamination in Green Coffee Beans Samples: A Public Health Concern,” Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Part A, vol. 80, no. 13-15, pp. 719–728, 2017. doi: 10.1080/15287394.2017.1286927. Abstract
     Studies on the microbiology of coffee cherries and beans have shown that the predominant toxigenic fungal genera (Aspergillus and Penicillium) are natural coffee contaminants. The aim of this study was to investigate the distribution of fungi in Coffea arabica L. (Arabica coffee) and Coffea canephora L. var. robusta (Robusta coffee) green coffee samples obtained from different sources at the pre-roasting stage. Twenty-eight green coffee samples from different countries of origin (Brazil, Timor, Honduras, Angola, Vietnam, Costa Rica, Colombia, Guatemala, Nicaragua, India, and Uganda) were evaluated. The fungal load in the contaminated samples ranged from 0 to 12330 colony forming units (CFU)/g, of which approximately 67% presented contamination levels below 1500 CFU/g, while 11% exhibited intermediate contamination levels between 1500 and 3000 CFU/g. Contamination levels higher than 3000 CFU/g were found in 22% of contaminated coffee samples. Fifteen different fungi were isolated by culture-based methods and Aspergillus species belonging to different sections (complexes). The predominant Aspergillus section detected was Nigri (39%), followed by Aspergillus section Circumdati (29%). Molecular analysis detected the presence of Aspergillus sections Fumigati and Circumdati. The% coffee samples where Aspergillus species were identified by culture-based methods were 96%. Data demonstrated that green coffee beans samples were contaminated with toxigenic fungal species. Since mycotoxins may be resistant to the roasting process, this suggests possible exposure to mycotoxins through consumption of coffee. Further studies need to be conducted to provide information on critical points of coffee processing, such that fungal contamination may be reduced or eliminated and thus exposure to fungi and mycotoxins through coffee handling and consumption be prevented.
677. L. Villain, J. Aribi, G. Réversat, and F. Anthony, “A High-Throughput Method for Early Screening of Coffee (Coffea Spp.) Genotypes for Resistance to Root-Knot Nematodes (Meloidogyne Spp.),” European journal of plant pathology, vol. 128, no. 4, pp. 451–458, 2010. doi: 10.1007/s10658-010-9671-4. Abstract
     Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) threaten the livelihood of millions of farmers producing coffee worldwide. The use of resistant plants either as cultivars or rootstocks appears to be the single most effective method of control. A screening method was developed to evaluate large populations of plants for resistance to root-knot nematodes. Two coffee cultivars, one susceptible and the other resistant to Meloidogyne paranaensis, were grown under controlled conditions in two substrates: a commercial sieved potting compost and an inert substrate containing sand with a water-absorbent synthetic polymer. Plant growth and development and nematode multiplication were compared for two inoculation dates (2 and 8 weeks after planting) and two evaluation dates (eight and 13 weeks after inoculation). Root growth, but not nematode multiplication, was influenced by the choice of substrate. Evaluation of the differences in root weight and nematode numbers between the different cultivars, substrates and dates of inoculation suggested that an optimal condition could be defined. The best discrimination between susceptible and resistant plants was found in the experiment where inoculation occurred at 2 weeks after planting and evaluation occurred at 8 weeks after inoculation. Because the total duration of this experiment was only 3 months, high-throughput evaluation was possible, opening up new possibilities for screening large germplasm collections and studying the genetic control of root-knot nematode resistance in coffee.
678. A. P. Vitória and P. Mazzafera, “Xanthine Degradation and Related Enzyme Activities in Leaves and Fruits of Two Coffea Species Differing in Caffeine Catabolism,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 47, no. 5, pp. 1851–1855, May 1999. doi: 10.1021/jf980892a. Abstract
     The degradation of xanthine was studied in young and aged leaves and in immature and mature fruits of Coffea arabica and Coffea dewevrei, which differ with respect to caffeine catabolism. Radioisotope feeding experiments showed that leaves degraded xanthine more readily than fruits but that mature fruits and aged leaves were less efficient than younger tissues. In all cases, a significant part of the recovered radioactivity was in the ureides. Xanthine dehydrogenase was characterized as the enzyme responsible for xanthine degradation, and its activity and that of uricase were consistent with the results obtained in the radioisotope feeding experiments. Activities of allantoinase and allantoate amidohydrolase could not be detected. Considerable levels of endogenous allantoin and allantoic acid were found in fruits and leaves. Therefore, ureide accumulation might be a consequence of low enzyme activity. There was no positive correlation between urease activity and the data from the radioisotope feeding experiments. Keywords: Allantoic acid; allantoin; Coffea arabica; Coffea dewevrei; uric acid; xanthine.
679. M. D. Walker and S. J. Ahmad, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia XII. The Anatomy of the Leaves of Mitragyna Hirsuta Havil,” Planta Medica, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 63–74, Feb. 1968. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1099882. Abstract
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680. M. D. Walker and S. J. Ahmad, “The Mitragyna Species of Asia XVII: The Anotomy of the Leaves of Mitragyna Javanica Var. Microphylla,” Planta Medica, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 55–65, Jan. 1970. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1099749. Abstract
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681. D. J. A. Walyaro, “Considerations in Breeding for Improved Yield and Quality in Arabica Coffee (Coffea Arabica L.),” PhD thesis, Wageningen University & Research, 1983. https://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/wurpubs/77526. Abstract
     Variation for growth., yield and quality characters was studied in a diallel cross among 11 varieties of arabica coffee. The objective was to demonstrate the possible application of such information in breeding programmes for improved yield and coffee quality. Growth characters especially girth, height, internode length on stem and primaries, and canopy radius had a high repeatability. Such characters are heritable, even with a single measurement taken on young coffee trees. For most yield characters, a good assessment can only be obtained if it is based on the mean of several years’ records Regarding quality characters, single berry weight, % AA, %AB and %PB showed a high heritability. Genetic variation for selected growth and yield characters was due to genes with additive and dominance effects. There was also evidence of epistatic effects among genes governing most of these characters, and especially so for yield. As a consequence many of the F 1 hybrids displayed considerable hybrid vigour varying between 10% to over 200% above the better parent. Variation for quality characters was chiefly due to the additive genetic effects, specific combining ability being relatively unimportant. A detailed study of genotype-environment interactions revealed that it is possible to select for high yielding genotypes with the desired level of linear response to environments. Yield stability and compact growth are characters that could be selected for independently. Quality characters in general were relatively less influenced by effects of genotype-environment interactions. Height and angle of primaries could be selected on basis of 1 year old seedlings in the nursery. It is also possible to base individual tree selection for yield on performance of fairly young coffee trees. This entails use of a preselection index comprising for instance, girth, canopy radius or internode length on primaries, bearing primaries or % bearing nodes, plus yield of the first 2-3 years of individual trees. For coffee quality, rapid improvement could be obtained by basing selection on %AA for bean size, and on the overall standard for liquor quality. The first year’s assessment of these characters is already sufficient for selection purposes. Implications of these results in breeding programmes are discussed. A breeding scheme is proposed aimed at developing compact high yielding coffee varieties with good quality which also combine resistance to the two main diseases of arabica coffee, coffee berry disease and coffee rust. The breeding scheme entails either development of hybrid varieties, or a programme of further selection to derive seed varieties. Important features of such a scheme are, 1) the use of information on genetic basis of variation for certain characters in planning hybridization programmes and, 2) a drastically reduced breeding cycle per generation as a result of basing selection, within each generation, on fairly young coffee trees.
682. M. Wang et al., “Comparison of Three Chromatographic Techniques for the Detection of Mitragynine and Other Indole and Oxindole Alkaloids in Mitragyna Speciosa (Kratom) Plants,” Journal of Separation Science, vol. 37, no. 12, pp. 1411–1418, 2014. doi: 10.1002/jssc.201301389. Abstract
     Leaves of the Southeast Asian plant Mitragyna speciosa are used to suppress pain and mitigate opioid withdrawal syndromes. The potential threat of abuse and ready availability of this uncontrolled psychoactive plant have led to the need for improved analytical techniques for the detection of the major active components, mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine. Three independent chromatographic methods coupled to two detection systems, GC with MS, supercritical fluid chromatography with diode array detection, and HPLC with MS and diode array detection, were compared for the analysis of mitragynine and other indole and oxindole alkaloids in M. speciosa plants. The indole alkaloids included two sets of diastereoisomers: (i) paynantheine and 3-isopaynantheine and (ii) mitragynine, speciogynine, and speciociliatine. Two oxindole alkaloid diastereoisomers, corynoxine and corynoxine B, were also studied. The HPLC and supercritical fluid chromatography methods successfully resolved the major components with slightly different elution orders. The GC method was less satisfactory because it was unable to resolve mitragynine and speciociliatine. This separation was difficult by GC with a liquid stationary phase because these diastereoisomers differ only in the orientation of an interior hydrogen atom. The observed lack of resolution of the indole alkaloid diastereoisomers coupled with the likeness of the mass and tandem mass spectra, calls into question proposed GC methods for the analysis of mitragynine based on solely GC with MS separation and identification.
683. K. Watanabe, A. Shimizu, and T. Sugawara, “Dioecy Derived from Distyly and Pollination in Psychotria Rubra (Rubiaceae) Occurring in the Ryukyu Islands, Japan,” Plant Species Biology, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 181–191, 2014. doi: 10.1111/1442-1984.12013. Abstract
     Floral morphology and breeding system were examined in natural populations of Psychotria rubra (Rubiaceae) occurring in the Ryukyu Islands in southwest Japan. This species is morphologically dimorphic with long- and short-styled morphs; however, these morphs are functionally dioecious. All long-styled morphs set fruits, but their short anthers completely lack pollen grains; thus, they function as pistillate flowers. Alternately, short-styled morphs usually have fertile pollen and never set fruit, whether after open or obligate pollinations; thus, they function as staminate flowers. However, some short-styled morphs in Mounts Katsuu-dake and Oppa-dake populations have no fertile pollens. No fruit was obtained from bagging experiments, indicating that P. rubra requires pollinators for its reproduction. In our pollinator observations, flies and short-tongued wasps were the main visitors of the flowers of P. rubra. Thus, these insects are probably effective pollinators for P. rubra in the Ryukyu Islands. Considering the morphological features, the dioecy found in P. rubra is probably derived from distyly; however, no sufficient evidence is available showing that dioecy has evolved “directly” from distyly.
684. K. Watanabe, H. Kato, E. Kuraya, and T. Sugawara, “Pollination and Reproduction of Psychotria Homalosperma, an Endangered Distylous Tree Endemic to the Oceanic Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands, Japan,” Plant Species Biology, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 16–27, 2018. doi: 10.1111/1442-1984.12183. Abstract
     Distyly is usually rare or not observed in species thriving on oceanic islands. The rarity of this breeding system is probably because of the difficulty of colonization for distylous plants and the paucity of pollinators on oceanic islands. However, the endemic and endangered tree Psychotria homalosperma has maintained its distylous nature in the oceanic Bonin Islands, Japan. To understand how the distylous breeding system of P. homalosperma has been maintained on these islands and to characterize the reproduction systems, we studied the pollination and reproductive biology of this species. Specifically, we observed current flower visitors and estimated their effects on plant reproduction. We also examined the floral traits and floral volatiles of P. homalosperma to infer its original pollinators, because plant–pollinator relationships in the Bonin Islands have recently been disrupted by anthropological activities. Finally, we examined the fruit set and pollen tube growth in the stigmas under hand and open pollination. Although original pollinators were presumed to be moths with long proboscises, the introduced honeybee, Apis mellifera, was the most common flower visitor. The honeybee carried pollen grains only unidirectionally, from the short- to long-styled morphs, because it could not reach the hidden stigmas of the short-styled flowers, and long-styled flowers set fruits 1.7–38 times more than short-styled ones. This case study indicates that the instability of pollinator fauna can cause distylous species to be rare on oceanic islands.
685. Woodrum, “Industrial Hemp Development Act,” no. SB 220. Jan-2023. https://www.wvlegislature.gov/Bill_Status/bills_history.cfm?year=2023&sessiontype=RS&input=220. Abstract
     A BILL to amend the Code of West Virginia, 1931, as amended, by adding thereto a new article, designated §16-66-1, §16-66-2, §16-66-3, §16-66-4, §16-66-5, and §16-66-6, all relating to the creation of the Kratom Consumer Protection Act; regulating the preparation, distribution, and sale of kratom products; prohibiting the preparation, distribution, and sale of adulterated or contaminated kratom products; prescribing fines and penalties; and providing for the powers and duties of certain state governmental officers and entities.
686. F. me B. F. B. F. is a writer, filmmaker, M. speciosa enthusiast H. enjoys writing kratom vendor, strain reviews for K. C. B. has worked as a journalist for over a decade, W. for M. Online, and O. Publications, “Rifat Kratom: What Makes It Different from Traditional Kratom,” Kratom Crazy. Mar-2019. https://kratomcrazy.com/2019/03/07/rifat-kratom-what-makes-it-different-from-traditional-kratom/. Abstract
     Named for Claude Rifat, a botanist from Switzerland who grew the very first Rifat Kratom tree from seed. Mr. Rifat was a noted biologist and psychonaut
687. J. Wungsintaweekul, J. Choo-malee, T. Charoonratana, and N. Keawpradub, “Methyl Jasmonate and Yeast Extract Stimulate Mitragynine Production in Mitragyna Speciosa (Roxb.) Korth. Shoot Culture,” Biotechnology Letters, vol. 34, no. 10, pp. 1945–1950, Oct. 2012. doi: 10.1007/s10529-012-0968-6. Abstract
     Mitragynine is a pharmacologically-active terpenoid indole alkaloid found in Mitragyna speciosa leaves. Treatment with methyl jasmonate (10 μM) for 24 h and yeast extract (0.1 mg/ml) for 12 h were the optimum conditions of elicitation of mitragynine accumulation in a M. speciosa shoot culture. The former elicitor gave 0.11 mg mitragynine/g dry wt. Tryptophan decarboxylase and strictosidine synthase mRNA levels were enhanced in accordance with mitragynine accumulation.
688. J. Wungsintaweekul, W. Sarata, P. Nualsri, A. Chaykul, and H. Je-oh, “Precursor Feeding and Elicitation Improve Mitragynine Production in Mitragyna Speciosa Shoot Culture,” Planta Medica, vol. 79, no. 13, p. PN120, Aug. 2013. doi: 10.1055/s-0033-1352462. Abstract
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689. K. Ya, J. Methaneethorn, Q. B. Tran, S. Trakulsrichai, W. Wananukul, and M. Lohitnavy, “Development of a Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Model of Mitragynine, Psychoactive Alkaloid in Kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa Korth.), In Rats and Humans,” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, vol. 53, no. 2, pp. 127–139, Mar. 2021. doi: 10.1080/02791072.2020.1849877. Abstract
     Mitragynine is a major psychoactive alkaloid in leaves of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.). To understand its disposition in organs, this study aimed to develop a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model that predicts mitragynine concentrations in plasma and organ of interests in rats and humans. The PBPK model consisted of six organ compartments (i.e. lung, brain, liver, fat, slowly perfused tissues, and rapidly perfused tissue). From systematic searching, three pharmacokinetic studies of mitragynine (two studies in rats and 1 study in humans) were retrieved from the literature. Berkeley Madonna Software (version 8.3.18) was used for model development and model simulation. The developed PBPK model consisted of biologically relevant features following involvement of (i) breast cancer-resistant protein (BCRP) in brain, (ii) a hepatic cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4)-mediated metabolism in the liver, and (iii) a diffusion-limited transport in fat. The simulations adequately describe simulated and observed data in the two species with different dosing regimens. PBPK models of mitragynine in rats and humans were successfully developed. The models may be used to guide optimal mitragynine dosing regimens.
690. H. Yang, H. Zhang, C. Yang, and Y. Chen, “Chemical Constituents of Plants from the Genus Psychotria,” Chemistry & Biodiversity, vol. 13, no. 7, pp. 807–820, 2016. doi: 10.1002/cbdv.201500259. Abstract
     Psychotria is a genus of ca. 1500 species in the family Rubiaceae. Up to now, 41 species of the Psychotria genus have been chemically investigated, and 159 compounds, including alkaloids of indole, quinoline and benzoquinolizidine type, terpenoids, steroids, phenolics and aliphatic compounds have been isolated. These compounds show potent bioactivities, such as antimicrobial, antiviral, and antiparasitic activities.
691. G. Yared and W. Kebede, “Effects of Albizia Gummifera, Millettia Ferruginea and Cordia Africana Leaf Litter on the Germination of Coffea Arabica L. Seed.,” International Journal of Agricultural Research, vol. 7, no. 6, pp. 315–323, 2012. doi: 10.3923/ijar.2012.315.323. Abstract
     In most Coffea arabica growing areas of Ethiopia, A. gummifera, C. africana and M. ferruginea are among the commonly used shade trees. The role of these species on germination of C. arabica seed has been little studied. This study assessed the impacts of these tree species’ leaf litter on C. arabica seed germination. The leaf litter was collected from mature standing and naturally growing plants, air dried and ground. Seed from C. arabica plant was collected and prepared. The ground leaf litter of each species was uniformly mixed with nursery bed soil in proportion of 50, 100 and 200 g m-2. Complete random block design with three replications were applied. Hundred undamaged seeds were randomly chosen and sown in uniform spacing within each plot (1 m-2). Rate of seed germination was recorded after 60, 90 and 120 days from the sowing date. Variations were analyzed using LSD method for one way ANOVA at alpha 0.05. The result showed that after 60 days of sowing, a significantly higher germination was observed in Ag2, Ag3, Ca1, Mf2 and Mf3 compared to the control. After 90 and 120 days of sowing, no significant variation was observed between control and treatments. From the results, it was concluded that leaf litter of the studied tree species stimulate germination of C. arabica seed in field condition, however, the level is not linearly related with germination rate. In situations where early, uniform and high germination rates are required, leaf litter of these species, preferably: Ag1, Ag3, Ca1, Mf2 and Mf3, can be used.
692. A. I. L. Yoas and E. Johannes, “Somatic Embryogenesis of Arabica Coffee (Coffea Arabica Var. Lini-s 795) from Toraja by in Vitro with the Additional of 2,4-Dichlorphenoxyacetic Acid (2,4-D) and 6-Furfurylamino Purine (Kinetin),” Academic Research International, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 78–83, Mar. 2021. http://www.savap.org.pk/journals/ARInt./Vol.12(1)/ARInt.2021(12.1-07).pdf. Abstract
     In general, coffee propagation still uses seeds, cuttings, grafting and shoot grafting. However, this method of propagation still has limitations in the amount of planting material. With somatic embryogenesis, it is possible to produce relatively uniform seedlings on a large scale and in a relatively short time. This study analyzed the effect of providing 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4 D) and 6-furfuryl- aminopurine (kinetin) in the process of forming embryogenic callus and somatic embryos from var.lini-s 795 arabica coffee leaves. This research was conducted at the Tissue Culture Laboratory, Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Hasanuddin University. The plant materiala used were var.lini-s 795 arabica coffee leaves. This study used 9 treatments and 1 control and used a completely randomized design with 3 replications. The parameters observed were the speed of the explants forming callus, the percentage of embryogenic callus, callus color, callus texture, callus wet weight, and the total of globules. The observation showed that all treatments were successful in forming callus except the control treatment. T he fastest treatment to produce callus was 2 ppm 2.4D and 2 ppm kinetin. The highest wet weight of callus was obtained in the treatment of 2.4 D 0.5 ppm and kinetin 0.5 ppm with a weight of 1.46 grams, the most embryogenic callus was obtained in treatment of 0.5 ppm 2.4 D and kinetin 0.5 ppm with a percentage 98% and the most somatic embryos in the form of golbular were obtained in the treatment of 0.5 ppm 2.4D and 2 ppm kinetin, which was 68.33.
693. F. Zakaria, N. H. Z. A. Razak, S. M. M. Faudzi, M. B. A. Rahman, and S. E. Ashari, “Statistical Optimisation of Mitragyna Speciosa Leaves Extract via Central Composite Design and Its Phytochemical Characterisation,” AIP Conference Proceedings, vol. 2454, no. 1, p. 020013, Jun. 2022. doi: 10.1063/5.0081931.
694. M. Zhang et al., “Effects of Nutrient Fertility on Growth and Alkaloidal Content in Mitragyna Speciosa (Kratom),” Frontiers in Plant Science, vol. 11, 2020. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2020.597696. Abstract
     Leaves harvested from the Southeast Asian tree Mitragyna speciosa (kratom) have a history of use as a traditional ethnobotanical source of medicine to combat fatigue, improve work productivity, and to reduce opioid-related withdrawal symptoms. Kratom leaves contain an array of alkaloids thought to be responsible for the bioactivity reported by users. Interest in the consumptive effects of kratom has led to its recent popularity and use in North America, Western Europe, and Australia. Although the chemistry and pharmacology of select kratom alkaloids are understood, studies have not examined the influence of production environment on growth and alkaloidal content. To directly address this need, 68 kratom trees were vegetatively propagated from a single mother stock to reduce genetic variability and subjected to four varying fertilizer application rates. Leaves were analyzed for chlorophyll concentration, biomass, and alkaloidal content to understand the physiological response of the plant. While increasing rates of fertilizer promoted greater plant growth, relationships with alkaloidal content within leaves were highly variable. Fertility rate had little influence on the concentration of mitragynine, paynantheine, speciociliatine, mitraphylline, and corynoxine per leaf dry mass. 7-Hydroxymitragynine was below the lower limit of quantification in all the analyzed leaf samples. Low to medium rates of fertilizer, however, maximized concentrations of speciogynine, corynantheidine, and isocorynantheidine per leaf dry mass, suggesting a promotion of nitrogen allocation for secondary metabolism occurred for these select alkaloids. Strong correlations (r2 =0.86) between extracted leaf chlorophyll and rapid, nondestructive chlorophyll evaluation (SPAD) response allowed for development of a reliable linear model that can be used to diagnose nutrient deficiencies and allow for timely adjustment of fertilization programs to more accurately manage kratom cultivation efforts. Results from this study provide a greater understanding of the concentration and synthesis of nine bioactive alkaloids in fresh kratom leaves and provide foundational information for kratom cultivation and production.
695. M. Zhang et al., “Plant Growth and Phytoactive Alkaloid Synthesis in Kratom [Mitragyna Speciosa (Korth.)] in Response to Varying Radiance,” PLOS ONE, vol. 17, no. 4, p. e0259326, Apr. 2022. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0259326. Abstract
     Leaves harvested from kratom [Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.)] have a history of use as a traditional ethnobotanical medicine to combat fatigue and improve work productivity in Southeast Asia. In recent years, increased interest in the application and use of kratom has emerged globally, including North America, for its potential application as an alternative source of medicine for pain management and opioid withdrawal syndrome mitigation. Although the chemistry and pharmacology of major kratom alkaloids, mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine, are well documented, foundational information on the impact of plant production environment on growth and kratom alkaloids synthesis is unavailable. To directly address this need, kratom plant growth, leaf chlorophyll content, and alkaloid concentration were evaluated under three lighting conditions: field full sun (FLD-Sun), greenhouse unshaded (GH-Unshaded), and greenhouse shaded (GH-Shaded). Nine kratom alkaloids were quantified using an ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method. Greenhouse cultivation generally promoted kratom height and width extension by 93–114% and 53–57%, respectively, compared to FLD-Sun. Similarly, total leaf area and leaf number were increased by 118–160% and 54–80% under such conditions. Average leaf size of plants grown under GH-Shaded was 41 and 69% greater than GH-Unshaded and FLD-Sun, respectively; however, no differences were observed between GH-Unshaded and FLD-Sun treatments. At the termination of the study, total leaf chlorophyll a+b content of FLD-Sun was 17–23% less than those grown in the greenhouse. Total leaf dry mass was maximized when cultivated in the greenhouse and was 89–91% greater than in the field. Leaf content of four alkaloids to include speciociliatine, mitraphylline, corynantheidine, and isocorynantheidine were not significantly impacted by lighting conditions, whereas 7-hydroxymitragynine was below the lower limit of quantification across all treatments. However, mitragynine, paynantheine, and corynoxine concentration per leaf dry mass were increased by 40%, 35%, and 111%, respectively, when cultivated under GH-Shaded compared to FLD-Sun. Additionally, total alkaloid yield per plant was maximized and nearly tripled for several alkaloids when plants were cultivated under such conditions. Furthermore, rapid, non-destructive chlorophyll evaluation correlated well (r2 = 0.68) with extracted chlorophyll concentrations. Given these findings, production efforts where low-light conditions can be implemented are likely to maximize plant biomass and total leaf alkaloid production.
696. Y. Zhou et al., “Analysis of Coffee Seed Vigor by Extractive Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry,” Analytical Methods, vol. 10, no. 8, pp. 867–873, Feb. 2018. doi: 10.1039/C7AY02403G. Abstract
     Water extracts of coffee seeds of various ages were analyzed in positive ion mode by extractive electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (EESI-MS) without any sample pretreatment, and the typical metabolites were identified by tandem mass spectrometry. Further assessment using principal component analysis (PCA), cluster analysis (CA), and discriminant analysis (DA) demonstrated that a combination of EESI-MS and multivariate analysis could effectively distinguish coffee seeds with different vigor. In PCA, the first three principal components explained 99.3% of the total variation, and coffee seeds with the same vigor were clustered closely together in CA with an accuracy of 100%. In DA, both the accuracy rate of discrimination of the training samples and the success rate of cross validation analysis were 100%. We concluded that coffee seeds with diverse vigor could be differentiated by EESI-MS coupled with multivariate analysis, providing a novel, sensitive, and rapid measurement of seed vigor in coffee.