Psychotria viridis

A short perennial shrub known primarily for its use as a source of DMT in ayahuasca mixtures.

Propagation

Germination

As mentioned earlier, propagation by seed is highly unlikely due to the 1% germination rate (Plant Encyclopedia 2011). A few online forums from growers that have had successful seed germination encourage soaking the seeds in mild bleach solution (30 ml. bleach in 236 ml. of water) for 15 minutes, this keeps the seeds from molding, then rinse and let seeds soak for 12 hours in water. Afterwards, the seeds should then be planted 8 mm deep into potting soil, placed into a Ziploc bag or a humidity tray, kept at 22-28 °C, out of direct sunlight, and germination can be expected in 6­-16 weeks ​(Erowid Psychotria Vault 2015)​​ (p. 15)[1]

[2] [1] [3] [4] [1]

Vegetative

Leaf Cutting

1. Remove a whole leaf from healthy plant
2. Make cuts along the primary leaf vein between each secondary vein on the bottom (abaxial) side
3. Place whole leaf in flat contact with growing media (filter paper, coco coir, peat moss), abaxial side down
4. Incubate at 95-100% humidity at 22-28°C and low light
5. Transplant rooted leaves to growing media after ~120 days

Viridis is one of the few species capable of asexual reproduction from a single leaf, or even a portion of leaf.[5][6][1]

Adventitious roots in P. viridis leaf tissues were also recorded by Salgado, Furlan, Aoyama, Rodrigues, and Cruz (2012). This characteristic points to an alternative reproductive strategy of this species, providing vegetative propagation from the leaves when they detach and reach the ground, which could be very important when pollination and dispersion vectors are absent or reduced. (p. 9)[7]

Rooted leaves are sufficiently developed to transplant to growing media after 120 days.[5]

Leaves begin to sprout roots after 14[8] to 45 days[5] with root length exceeding 1cm after 70 days[5].

Rooting is concentrated where primary leaf veins are broken or cut. Whole leaf cuttings root at an average of 25% compared to 75-100% for cut leaves. The effect could be due to the basal accumulation of auxins since removal of apical leaf sections reduces rooting to 12.5% while removing the same from the basal section increase rooting to 87.5%.[5]

Alternatively, viridis leaves may be bent every ~1/2 inch sufficiently to break the vein while leaving the leaf intact to initiate rooting.[9].

[10] [9] [8] [1] [11] [5]

In-Vitro

Cultivation

The reduced number of stomata per mm2 in the population of the drier site could be understood as an adaptive anatomical adjustment in response to seasonal hydric stress in which these plants are submitted. (p. 9)[7]

[12] [13] [14] [1] [5]

Harvest

[15] [14] [1]

Yield

[14]

Soilless

However, samples of P. viridis from the Arco-íris site had the greatest average value of DMT (44.66 mg g-1) (Table 1). This site was the only one where P. viridis was cultured under environmentally controlled conditions in greenhouses. (p. 1250)[14]

[14]

Soil

Although being from an original environment of tropical forest characterized by hot, humid, and predominantly low altitudes, P. viridis is currently grown in semi-arid climates that have prolonged dry periods that can last for years and in mountainous regions with altitudes of approximately 1000 m and lower temperatures than those found in the Amazon region. These differences may interfere with the concentration of secondary metabolites. (p. 1246)[14]

It is likely that this thermal stability in the Amazon region is the main factor that minimizes variations in the concentration of DMT. (p. 1251)[14]

A positive association was found between latitude and DMT content in the leaves of P. viridis. It was observed that DMT declined with movement away from the equator, towards the south. All estimative were positive and statistically significant. For DMT variation, approximately 28.4% was explained by latitude. (p. 1251)[14]

In winter, a period characterized by low incidence of rainfall (collection 2, July), it was observed that DMT production increased with increases in the rainfall index. In summer, a season characterized by high rainfall, the effect was negative; that is, the increase in the rainfall index induced P. viridis to decrease its DMT production (collection 4, January) (Table 1, Table S2). This reduction in the DMT content can be explained by the dilution of DMT in the tissues of the plant (growth of new plant tissues). (p. 1251)[14]

Nonetheless, it was possible to estimate a value of approximately 14.1% contribution of the rainfall index to the variation in DMT concentration. (p. 1251)[14]

Acidity correction and its interactions with sites and seasons accounted for 11.25% of the DMT variation (sums of squares) associated with sites, seasons and the interaction among these factors, according to the coefficient of determination previously defined. (p. 1252)[14]

The effect of irrigation on DMT levels was not statistically significant. (p. 1252)[14]

A positive association between the content of N and Mg with DMT concentration was revealed with statistical analyses. (p. 1253)[14]

Statistical analysis revealed a negative association for the levels of P (autumn and spring), S (spring and summer), Mn (autumn and winter), and Cu (winter) and DMT concentration (Table S3, SI section). No clear trend could be observed for the elements Ca, Zn, and B. (p. 1253)[14]

In relation to altitude, latitude, and biome criteria, the variation of DMT reached 31.3, 28.4 and 17.3%, respectively. (p. 1254)[14]

[14]

Fertilization

[14]

Temperature

[14]

Lighting

Pests

Ecology

The native climate of viridis is humid to sub-humid equatorial that receives 1400-3500 mm per year of rainfall. The temperature does not vary throughout the year and stays in the range of 22-28°C.[16]

[17] [7] [13] [14] teixeira_uso_2008

Morphology

[13] [7]

Roots

Stem

Leaves

[18]

Inflorescence

Seeds

Phytochemistry

[19] [20] [15] [21] [7] [22] [13] [23] [24] [25] [26] [18] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38]

Infraspecific Variation

Biosynthesis

Distribution

[18]

Timecourse

Improvement

Identification

[39] [7] [40]

Inheritance

Methods

[20] [22] [27] [29] [30] [41] [38]

History & Society

[19] [42] [43] [44] [45] [21] [23] [24] [26] [46] [47] [48] [49] [31] [50] [32] [51] [41] [34] [37] [16] mckenna_scientific_1998

Work Log

12 Sep 2021

Project Created!

Bibliography

1. Kuderko, Jack, Ayahuasca: Propagating a Plant Teacher to Heal the World (A Guideline for Future Greenhouse Production of Psychotria Viridis), 2015. url: http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/175837. Abstract
   The purpose of this paper is to give a brief history of Ayahuasca and P. viridis Ruiz et. Pavon, present the currently known production methods, and provide insight into the future of P. viridis production. Since P.viridis has not been heavily researched, this may serve as an overview of future production. I hope this may be a helpful learning tool for anyone intrigued by the great mystery of Ayahuasca and anyone interested in legally producing Psychotria viridis in the future.
2. Andrade, Amanda O. and Da Silva, Maria A. P. and De Oliveira, Alison H. and Dos Santos, Marcos Aurelio F. and Vandesmet, Lilian C. S. and Generino, Maria E. M. and Coelho, Helen K. R. C. and Landim, Hemerson S. and Mendonça, Ana C. A. M. and Da Costa, Natália C., Allelopathic Effects of Psychotria Viridis Ruiz \& Pavon on the Germination and Initial Growth of Lactuca Sativa L., Journal of Agricultural Science, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 204, December 2016. doi: 10.5539/jas.v9n1p204. Abstract
   The effects of aqueous and ethanol extracts and leaf fractions of Psychotria viridis Ruiz \& Pavon (chacrona) at different concentrations on the germination and initial growth of Lactuca sativa L. were tested, and the phenolic and flavonoid compounds of these extracts and fractions were assessed. The bioassays consisted of the following treatments: crude aqueous extract (CAE) at 25, 50, 75 and 100\% concentration, crude ethanol extract (CEE) and ethyl acetate, dichloromethane and methanol fractions at 6.25, 12.5, 25, 50 and 100\% concentration and a control group. All treatments consisted of five replicates. The CAE, CEE and the ethyl acetate fraction of P. viridis caused both positive and negative effects on the seeds and seedlings of L. sativa. By contrast, the dichloromethane and methanol fractions only caused negative effects on L. sativa. The following compounds were identified in the extracts and fractions: gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, ellagic acid, catechin, orientin, vitexin, quercetin, apigenin, rutin and luteolin, and the presence of the alkaloid N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) has also been reported in the literature. P. viridis had allelopathic effects in all types of plant extracts and fractions tested, and one of these compounds or their combined action may account for these effects.
3. {WSS}, Growing Psychotria Viridis from Seed and Cuttings, August 2014. url: https://www.worldseedsupply.com/growing-psychotria-viridis-from-seed-and-cuttings/. Abstract
   Although we will be talking about psychotria viridis, the same techniques that are used for viridis can also be used for related species like p. alba, p. nervosa and p. carthagenensis. Psychotria viridis can be propagated by both seeds and cuttings. While stem cuttings work well, psychotria species are unique in that they can even […]
4. {WSS}, World Seed Supply’s Guide to Psychotria Viridis \& Alba Identification, November 2013. url: https://web.archive.org/web/20131103185840/http://worldseedsupply.org/blog/?p=228.
5. M.p.g, Salgado and M.r, Furlan and E.m, Aoyama and E, Rodrigues and L.p, Cruz, Asexual Propagation Of Psychotria Viridis (ruiz \& Pavon) Via Leaf Cutting [propagação Assexuada De Chacrona (psychotria Viridis Ruiz \& Pavon) Via Estaquia Foliar], Scopus, 2012. url: http://repositorio.unicamp.br/jspui/handle/REPOSIP/90333. Abstract
   This study aimed to assess the asexual propagation of Psychotria viridis by leaf cuttings. The treatments were: A - Whole leaf cuttings, B - leaf cuttings with the top third cut off; C - with the lower third of the cuttings removed; D - with cuts on the primary vein of leaf cuttings, and E - poles with cuts on the leaf's secondary veins. The cuttings were immersed in distilled water for a period of 70 days. In all the treatments, the rooting was observed to occur in the region of the cut, or the place where the incision in the vein was. Current assay shows the feasibilities of Psychotria viridis leaf stalks and concludes that cuttings at the nerve ends highlight rooting in so far as the leaf stalks remain in permanent contact with the plant.
6. Salgado, M. and Furlan, M. R. and Aoyama, E. and Rodrigues, Eliana and Cruz, L., Propagação Assexuada de Chacrona ( Psychotria Viridis Ruiz \& Pavon) Via Estaquia Foliar, undefined, 2011. url: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Propaga%C3%A7%C3%A3o-Assexuada-de-Chacrona-(-Psychotria-Ruiz-Salgado-Furlan/ecade49b15bf6d77ac44d00ed64887e378356b75. Abstract
   Este trabalho demonstra a viabilidade das estacas foliares da chacrona, concluindo that cortes nas nervuras estimulam o enraizamento, desde que as estacas Foliares fiquem em contato permanente com umidade. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a propagacao assexuada de chacrona (Psychotria viridis) por meio de estacas foliares. Os tratamentos foram: A - estacas foliares inteiras; B - estacas foliares com o terco superior cortado; C – com o terco inferior das estacas retirado; D – com cortes sobre a nervura primaria das estacas foliares; e E - estacas com cortes sobre as nervuras secundarias das folhas. As estacas foram imersas em agua destilada durante um periodo de 70 dias. Em todos os tratamentos foi observado que o enraizamento ocorreu na regiao do corte, ou no local onde ocorreu a incisao na nervura. Este trabalho demonstra a viabilidade das estacas foliares da chacrona, concluindo que cortes nas nervuras estimulam o enraizamento, desde que as estacas foliares fiquem em contato permanente com umidade.
7. de Miranda, Ordilena Ferreira and De Souza, Saulo Eduardo Xavier Franco and Milan, Rodrigo José and Bueno, Aline Borges and de Almeida, Marcilio, Influence of Environment on the Leaf Morpho-Anatomy and Histochemical of the Ayahuasca Leaf: Populations Cultivated in Extra-Amazonian Regions, Acta Scientiarum. Biological Sciences, vol. 42, pp. e50369, April 2020. doi: 10.4025/actascibiolsci.v42i1.50369. Abstract
   Psychotria viridis Ruiz \& Pav. (Rubiaceae) occurs naturally throughout the Amazon and it is traditionally used by indigenous communities, being incorporated into religious use in urban contexts over the last few decades. It is known and cultivated in many regions of South America for possessing valuable bioactive alkaloids. In this paper, we described P. viridis leaf morphology, anatomy and histochemistry from three populations cultivated in the southeastern Brazil, in order to identify possible adaptations to local environment and management. All plants presented terminal stipules and basic morpho-anatomical patterns of leaves, consistent with most species of the genus, as heterogeneous dorsiventral mesophyll, uniseriate epidermis, presents large cells with prominent vacuoles and druses. Unicellular non-glandular trichomes and multicellular starry trichomes were present in the primary and secondary veins. Amphi-hypostomatic leaf pattern, not yet described for the species, was common in all studied plants. Variation in the presence of domatia in the same population indicates that this structure cannot be used for taxonomic determination of P. viridis, as already described for other species of the genus. Presence of secretory ducts and reduction in stomata density and leaf area represent the main morpho-anatomic adaptations of plants from drier and warmer climates. Histochemical tests were positive for alkaloids, polysaccharides, proteins and phenolic compounds, being negative for starch only in plants subjected to water stress. We concluded that the morpho-anatomical and histochemical alterations found in the plants of this study resulted from seasonal water deficit adaptations and to maintain or attract mutualistic organisms.
8. Herbalistics, Takeaway Tek - Psychotria Leaves - Easy Propagation Method., Herbalistics, April 2017. url: https://herbalistics.com.au/takeaway-tek-psychotria-leaves-easy-propagation-method/. Abstract
   A new method of propagating Psychotria viridis (chacruna) and other Psychotria cultivars using takeaway containers, only in Australia.
9. LojaXamanica, Psychotria Viridis Leaf Rooting, r/druggardening, April 2021. url: www.reddit.com/r/druggardening/comments/mydnr7/psychotria_viridis_leaf_rooting/.
10. GrowerOfNature, Psychotria Viridis Leaf Propagates and a Few Seedlings☺️, r/Ayahuasca, February 2021. url: www.reddit.com/r/Ayahuasca/comments/luhtol/psychotria_viridis_leaf_propagates_and_a_few/.
11. {drz420}, Psychotria Viridis Leaf Cuttings, r/gardening, January 2013. url: www.reddit.com/r/gardening/comments/17mq1g/psychotria_viridis_leaf_cuttings/.
12. Herbalistics, The Ultimate Psychotria Growing Guide (Psychotria Viridis and Its Hybrids), Herbalistics, July 2020. url: https://herbalistics.com.au/the-ultimate-psychotria-growing-guide/. Abstract
    The ultimate guide to growing and propagating Psychotria viridis (Chacruna) and its hybrids.
13. de Miranda, Ordilena Ferreira, Evaluation of the morphological, anatomical and phytochemical variation of Banisterio-psis caapi (Spruce ex Griseb.) Cv Morton and Psychotria viridis Ruiz \& Pav in different environments, alkaloid content and cytotoxicity of Aya-huasca tea, December 2020. doi: 10.11606/T.11.2020.tde-12022021-101623. Abstract
    B. caapi e P. viridis são plantas de origem amazônica e as principais espécies preconizados para preparação do chá Ayahuasca. Um chá com efeitos enteogênico e psicotrópico de uso milenar pelos povos indígenas da Amazônia, preparado pela decocção de caules de B. Caapi, que apresenta os alcaloides β-carbolínicos harmina (HRM), harmalina (HRL) e tetrahidrohramina (THH), e folhas de P. viridis que contém o alcaloide NN-dimetiltriptamina (DMT). Atualmente, Ayahuasca está em crescente expansão de uso como sacramento religioso em nível mundial, e junto com seu potencial farmacológico no campo da neurológia e psiquiatria tem fomentado um número expressivo de pesquisas científicas. Os resultados científicos têm evidenciado que Ayahuasca consumido em nível mundial, principalmente Europa e América do Norte, apresenta uma ampla variação no teor dos alcaloides bioativos, que afeta diretamente o potencial enteogênico e farmacológico do chá. Porém, a despeito da importância desse chá e das plantas que o compõem, até recentemente, as pesquisas científicas eram focadas somente no chá Ayahuasca, não havia estudo da relação planta-ambiente e das alterações morfológicas, anatômicas e fitoquímicas, que podem ser as causas subjacentes das variações no teor dos alcaloides na Ayahuasca preparado com plantas de diversos ambientes. Da mesma forma, não foi encontrado nenhum estudo desenvolvendo um método de pré-processamento e secagem das plantas da Ayahuasca que permita sua exportação e contribua com a segurança de uso desse chá. Portanto, os objetivos desse trabalho foram: i. Avaliar as alterações nas características organográficas, anatômicas e histoquímicas das folhas de três populações de P. viridis cultivadas em diferentes condições ambientais no estado de São Paulo; ii. Verificar as variações na morfologia, anatomia, histoquímica e teor de alcaloides apresentadas por folhas de P. viridis cultivadas em ecossistemas de Terra-firme (TF) e Campinarana (CAMP) do bioma Amazônia; iii. Verificar as diferenças morfológicas, anatômicas, histoquímicas e a variação no teor dos alcaloides em caules de B. caapi coletados em dois ecossistemas com diferentes características ambientais na Amazônia; iv. Determinar os parâmetros para a padronização da matéria-prima vegetal utilizadas no preparo do chá Ayahuasca tradicional: temperatura ideal de secagem para as plantas, teor e proporção dos alcaloides DMT, HRM, HRL e THH em Ayahuascas preparado com plantas após processo de secagem, além de avaliar o potencial citotóxico de Ayahuasca preparado com plantas in natura e desidratadas sobre células de HaCaT (queratinócitos humanos). Para todas as análises morfológicas, anatômicas e histoquímicas de caules de B. caapi e folhas de P. viridis foram utilizados microscópio de luz e microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV); As análises fitoquímicas foram realizadas usando extratos etanólicos de folhas e caules separadamente, e chá Ayahuasca preparado com plantas in natura e após processamento de secagem sob temperaturas de 40, 43, 45, 50, 60°C e ao sol. A concentração dos compostos bioativos foi determinada por Cromatografia Liquida de Alta Eficiência com Detector UV-vis com Arranjo de Diodos (CLAE-DAD), a citotoxicidade in vitro foi avaliada com exposição das amostras de chá Ayahuasca em células HaCaT e, o agente antineoplásico cloridrato de doxorrubicina foi usado como controle positivo. Em folhas de P. viridis tanto de regiões extra-amazônica quanto amazônica as alterações encontradas estão diretamente relacionadas ao esforço adaptativo da espécie à disponibilidade hídrica do ambiente e mostram que, estresse hídrico prolongando causa alterações anatômicas que interferem no teor de alcaloides na espécie. Com relação a B.caapi, foram encontradas alterações no sistema condutor relacionados à alterações nas características do ambiente, além disso, as plantas do ecossistema de Campinarana exibiram teor de alcaloides mais elevado, revelando relação positiva do teor dos alcaloides β-carbolínicos com a disponibilidade hídrica do ambiente. As variações nas concentrações de DMT, HRL, HRM e THH no chá Ayahuasca sofrem influências do ambiente de origem das plantas. O processo de secagem mais adequado, foi alcançado em estufa de circulação forçada com temperaturas de 43°C para folhas e 45°C para caules. A Ayahuasca, nas concentrações testadas, não apresenta citotoxicidade celular relacionada a DMT, HRM, HRML e THH para queratinócitos humanos.
14. Cavalcante, André D. and Cardoso, Gabriele A. and de Oliveira, Fernando L. P. and Bearzoti, Eduardo and Okuma, Adriana A. and Duarte, Lucienir P. and {Vieira-Filho}, Sidney A., Influence of Environmental Factors and Cultural Methods on the Content of N,N-Dimethyltryptamine in Psychotria Viridis (Rubiaceae), Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society, vol. 29, pp. 1245--1255, June 2018. doi: 10.21577/0103-5053.20170221. Abstract
    Psychotria viridis is one of the species that produces N,N-dimethyltryptamine. Its decoction together with other species, such as Banisteriopsis caapi, produces ayahuasca, a beverage used for ritualistic and medicinal purposes. The goal of this study was to understand how environmental factors and cultivation methods influenced the content of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in P. viridis. Over all four seasons, leaf samples were collected from 25 different locations in 14 Brazilian states, and Federal District. Environmental parameters, micro and macronutrients, plant characteristics, information on farming methods were correlated with N,N-dimethyltryptamine content, determined by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Greatest effects on the N,N-dimethyltryptamine amount were associated with seasonality, altitude, latitude and biome type. A positive correlation between N and Mg content and N,N-dimethyltryptamine levels was statistically established. By regression analysis, the adequate foliar nutrient levels that would result in the concentration of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in cultivated plants similar to that of Amazonian P. viridis were equated.
15. De, Miranda Ordilena Ferreira and De, Almeida Marcílio and de Oliveira, Sousa Ilza Maria and Gois, Ruiz Ana Lúcia Tasca and Da, Costa José Luiz and da Silva, Medeiros Raquel and Ann, Foglio Mary and De, Miranda Ordilena Ferreira and De, Almeida Marcílio and de Oliveira, Sousa Ilza Maria and Gois, Ruiz Ana Lúcia Tasca and Da, Costa José Luiz and da Silva, Medeiros Raquel and Ann, Foglio Mary, Assessment of Environmental Condition and Drying Process of the Plants on the Concentration of Alkaloids and Cytotoxicity of Traditional Ayahuasca Tea, World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 075--089, 2021. doi: 10.30574/wjarr.2021.10.2.0209. Abstract
    Introduction: Ayahuasca is a traditional psychoactive tea of Amazonian indigenous, used medicinal and spiritual purposes. Wide variation in the concentration of N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), Harmaline (HRL), Harmine (HRM) and Tetrahydroharmine (THH) alkaloids in Ayahuasca has been reported worldwide. Objective: To evaluate the causes of variations in alkaloids concentrations of Ayahuasca prepared with fresh and dehydrated plants from different environments and determine the best drying method to plants according to alkaloids content and cytotoxicity of Ayahuasca tea. Material and methods: The environment interference on the alkaloids of the two species was evaluated in samples of Ayahuasca tea prepared with fresh plants. The most suitable drying process to the two species was evaluated in sample Ayahuasca tea prepared with plants submitted to drying under the sun conditions and five different temperatures in forced circulation oven. The concentration of the alkaloids determined by high performance liquid chromatography with UV-vis detector with diode array detection (HPLC-DAD). The in vitro cytotoxicity of Ayahuasca was evaluated in human keratinocytes cells (HaCaT) by colorimetric assay. Results: Environmental characteristics, preparation process and temperature of plants drying interfered on DMT, HRL, HRM and THH concentrations of Ayahuasca. No effect cytotoxicity was detected with relationship to psychoactive alkaloids in samples of Ayahuasca tea prepared with fresh or dried plants. Conclusion: Concentration of DMT, HRL, HRM and THH alkaloids in Ayahuasca are influenced by plants environmental. The most suitable drying process was obtained in forced circulation oven at 43 and 45°C to P. viridis leaves and B. caapi stems respectively. The Ayahuasca prepared with fresh or dry plants no showed cytotoxicity in human keratinocytes cells.
16. Teixeira, Daniel and Quinteiro, Mariana and BAPTISTA, {\relax ANDRÉ} and Silva, Janie, Uso E Manejo De Plantas Ritualísticas Na Comunidade Do Santo Daime Em Galdinópolis, Nova Friburgo / Rj, Brasil, Revista de Ciências da Vida, vol. 28, pp. 63--74, January 2008. Abstract
    TEIXEIRA, D. C.; QUINTEIRO, M. M. da COSTA; BAPTISTA, A. A.; SILVA, da J. G. The use and management of ritualistic plants in the community of Santo Daime in Galdinópolis, Nova Friburgo/RJ Brasil. Revista de Ciências da Vida, Seropédica, RJ: EDUR, v. 28, n. 2, jul.-dez., p. 63-74, 2008. In the Amazon forest there is the habit of using a millenary drink, Ayahuasca, made from decoction of two native plants: the stem of the diwting Banisteriopsis caapi (Spruce) Morton. ex. Briesb (Malpighiaceae) with the leaves of the shrub Psychotria viridis Ruiz \& Pav. (Rubiaceae), still used nowadays by local indigenous tribes. With the Amazon exploration by the settlers, the use of the drink has spread through out Brazil and abroad, giving rise to religious cults that use the drink in ritualistic contexts. A community that has been cultivating both species to prepare the tea since 1990 was observed, in Galdinópolis, district of Nova Friburgo (RJ). This study aims at following up their techniques and adaptation in dealing with these two plants in a religious context out of Amazon, setting an example of how to handle the situation for the Brazilian southeast. Both species are cultivated by vegetative propagation, receive organic fertilization and grow in agroforest consortium with native plants and other species. The drink is considered as an entheogen and according to users would be capable to cure physical, mental and espiritual diseases. Their dogmas, beliefs and habits seem to fit into natural rhytm of the environmental susutentability.
17. Thevenin, Julien Marius Reis and Sambuichi, Regina Helena Rosa, Phytogeography and Floristics of the Arbor Component in União Do Vegetal Territories Intended for the Cultivation of Banisteriopsis Caapi and Psychotria Viridis in Rondônia, Raega - O Espaço Geográfico em Análise, vol. 49, no. 0, pp. 42, December 2020. doi: 10.5380/raega.v49i0.67208. Abstract
    The territorial expansion of Amazonian religions that make ritual use of Ayahuasca / Hoasca, in Rondônia, has been associated to the maintenance of forested areas and recovery of degraded areas associated with the cultivation of Banisteriopsis caapi [(SpruceexGriseb.) CV Morton] and Psychotria viridis (Ruiz \& Pav.) in agroforestry systems (SAFs). The present research had as objective to carry out the floristic survey and to analyze the composition and structure of the arboreal component of the forest fragments and agroforestry of territorial areas of União do Vegetal, one of the Hoasca religious matrices, in each phytoecological region of its comprehension in Rondônia. For this, non-probabilistic samples were performed on 08 rural properties in the delimited territory. In the selected areas, disjoint plots of 50 x 20 m (0.1 ha) were plotted, totaling 23 plots and 2.3 ha of area sampled, and then phytosociological parameters were calculated in the FITOPAC 2.1 application. Floristic surveys and phytosociological parameters presented satisfactory results regarding the conservation of phytodiversity in these areas according to the phytoecological region in which they are found. The occurrence of species in the Near Threatened and Vulnerable (VU) status by RedList shows the importance of these territories to conservation. In the case of samples in cultivated areas of the ritual species, these results were superior to other Agroforestry Systems, and in 75\% of the samples better than the own areas of forest destined to the Legal Reserve of the same property.
18. Soares, Débora B. S. and Duarte, Lucienir P. and Cavalcanti, André D. and Silva, Fernando C. and Braga, Ariadne D. and Lopes, Miriam T. P. and Takahashi, Jacqueline A. and {Vieira-Filho}, Sidney A., Psychotria Viridis: Chemical Constituents from Leaves and Biological Properties, Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências, vol. 89, pp. 927--938, 2017-Apr-Jun. doi: 10.1590/0001-3765201720160411. Abstract
    ABSTRACT The phytochemical study of hexane, chloroform and methanol extracts from leaves of Psychotria viridis resulted in the identification of: the pentacyclic triterpenes, ursolic and oleanolic acid; the steroids, 24-methylene-cycloartanol, stigmasterol and β-sitosterol; the glycosylated steroids 3-O-β-D-glucosyl-β-sitosterol and 3-O-β-D-glucosyl-stigmasterol; a polyunsaturated triterpene, squalene; the esters of glycerol, 1-palmitoylglycerol and triacylglycerol; a mixture of long chain hydrocarbons; the aldehyde nonacosanal; the long chain fat acids hentriacontanoic, hexadecanoic and heptadenoic acid; the ester methyl heptadecanoate; the 4-methyl-epi-quinate and two indole alkaloids, N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) and N-methyltryptamine. The chemical structures were determined by means of spectroscopic (IR, 1H and 13C NMR, HSQC, HMBC and NOESY) and spectrometric (CG-MS and LCMS-ESI-ITTOF) methods. The study of biologic properties of P. viridis consisted in the evaluation of the acetylcholinesterase inhibition and cytotoxic activities. The hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate and methanol extracts, the substances 24-methylene-cycloartanol, DMT and a mixture of 3-O-β-D-glucosyl-β-sitosterol and 3-O-β-D-glucosyl-stigmasterol showed cholinesterase inhibiting activity. This activity induced by chloroform and ethyl acetate extracts was higher than 90\%. The methanol and ethyl acetate extracts inhibit the growth and/or induce the death of the tumor cells strains B16F10 and 4T1, without damaging the integrity of the normal cells BHK and CHO. DMT also demonstrated a marked activity against tumor cell strains B16F10 and 4T1.
19. Murucci, Catarina Rodrigues Damasceno and de Freitas, Rita de Cássia Ramos Queiroz and Viana, Grazielly Ribeiro and Martins, Thales Andrade and Tosta, Alessandra and Amaro, Andreza Gonçalves Vieira and Rapagnã, Luciano Carvalho and de Queiroz, Maria Sandra Ramos and da Silva, Gilson Viana and de Souza, Cassius, Evaluation of the Therapeutic Neurotoxic Effects of the Use of Ayahuasca by Depressive Patients, Revista Contemporânea, vol. 3, no. 9, pp. 13609--13623, September 2023. doi: 10.56083/RCV3N9-011. Abstract
    Ayahuasca is a tea used in original indigenous rituals with the aim of expanding the mind and consciousness. Some studies have pointed to Ayahuasca as a potent antidepressant with reduced side effects when compared to other conventional synthetic allopathic treatments. Over the years, tea has come to be known by both the popular community and the scientific community. The species used are Psychotria viridis and Banisteriopsis caapi, the leaves of Psychotria viridis have around 0.1\% to 0.6\% DMT. Psychotria viridis alkaloid, when ingested through Ayahuasca, exerts an agonist effect on 5-HT2A receptors in the brain, while Banisteriopsis caapi has a high concentration of β-carboline alkaloids such as Harmine, Harmaline and tetrahydroarmine, responsible for inhibiting monoamine oxidase (MAO), however, as well as the difficulties encountered in studies associated with the therapeutic benefits of the Cannabis sativa plant, especially in the face of traditional conservative movements, there are also few studies that indicate or position themselves on the neurotoxic and therapeutic potential, especially when used as possible treatments for the depression. Therefore, new natural therapies, including Ayahuasca, should be investigated for their toxic and therapeutic potential so that, as soon as safe parameters are identified, they can serve society, especially for depressive patients.
20. Moraes, Thaís de Fátima Silva and Ferraz, Ariane Coelho and Nizer, Waleska Stephanie da Cruz and Tótola, Antônio Helvécio and Soares, Débora Barbosa da Silva and Duarte, Lucienir Pains and Vieira Filho, Sidney Augusto and Magalhães, Cíntia Lopes de Brito and de Magalhães, José Carlos, Methanol Extract and N,N-Dimethyltryptamine from Psychotria Viridis Ruiz \& Pav. Inhibit in Vitro the Zika Virus Infection., 2021. doi: 10.1007/s00705-021-05230-8. Abstract
    Zika virus (ZIKV) is a public health problem due to its association with serious fetal and neurological complications and the lack of antiviral agents and licensed vaccines against this virus. Surveillance studies have alerted about the potential occurrence of a new South American epidemic episode due to the recent circulation of an African ZIKV strain detected in Brazil. Therefore, it is essential to discover antiviral agents, including natural substances, that are capable of neutralizing the action of ZIKV. Several Psychotria species have antimicrobial and anti-infammatory properties. Thus, a methanol extract and dimethyltryptamine from Psychotria viridis were evaluated for their ability to inhibit ZIKV infection in vitro by measur- ing the efective concentration that protects 50\% of cells and investigating their possible mechanisms of action. The tested samples showed antiviral activity against ZIKV. The extract showed virucidal activity, afecting viral and non-cellular ele- ments, inactivating the virus before infection or when it becomes extracellular after the second cycle of infection. It was also observed that both extract and dimethyltryptamine could inhibit the virus at intracellular stages of the viral cycle. In addition to dimethyltryptamine, it is believed that other compounds also contribute to the promising virucidal efect observed for the methanol extract. To our knowledge, this is the frst report of the activity of a methanolic extract and dimethyltryptamine from Psychotria viridis against cellular ZIKV infection. These two samples, extracted from natural sources, are potential candidates for use as antiviral drugs to inhibit ZIKV infections.
21. {Brito-da-Costa}, Andreia Machado and {Dias-da-Silva}, Diana and Gomes, Nelson G. M. and {Dinis-Oliveira}, Ricardo Jorge and {Madureira-Carvalho}, Áurea, Toxicokinetics and Toxicodynamics of Ayahuasca Alkaloids N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), Harmine, Harmaline and Tetrahydroharmine: Clinical and Forensic Impact, Pharmaceuticals, vol. 13, no. 11, pp. 334, November 2020. doi: 10.3390/ph13110334. Abstract
    Ayahuasca is a hallucinogenic botanical beverage originally used by indigenous Amazonian tribes in religious ceremonies and therapeutic practices. While ethnobotanical surveys still indicate its spiritual and medicinal uses, consumption of ayahuasca has been progressively related with a recreational purpose, particularly in Western societies. The ayahuasca aqueous concoction is typically prepared from the leaves of the N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT)-containing Psychotria viridis, and the stem and bark of Banisteriopsis caapi, the plant source of harmala alkaloids. Herein, the toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of the psychoactive DMT and harmala alkaloids harmine, harmaline and tetrahydroharmine, are comprehensively covered, particularly emphasizing the psychological, physiological, and toxic effects deriving from their concomitant intake. Potential therapeutic utility, particularly in mental and psychiatric disorders, and forensic aspects of DMT and ayahuasca are also reviewed and discussed. Following administration of ayahuasca, DMT is rapidly absorbed and distributed. Harmala alkaloids act as potent inhibitors of monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A), preventing extensive first-pass degradation of DMT into 3-indole-acetic acid (3-IAA), and enabling sufficient amounts of DMT to reach the brain. DMT has affinity for a variety of serotonergic and non-serotonergic receptors, though its psychotropic effects are mainly related with the activation of serotonin receptors type 2A (5-HT2A). Mildly to rarely severe psychedelic adverse effects are reported for ayahuasca or its alkaloids individually, but abuse does not lead to dependence or tolerance. For a long time, the evidence has pointed to potential psychotherapeutic benefits in the treatment of depression, anxiety, and substance abuse disorders; and although misuse of ayahuasca has been diverting attention away from such clinical potential, research onto its therapeutic effects has now strongly resurged.
22. Simão, Ana Y. and Gonçalves, Joana and Caramelo, Débora and Rosado, Tiago and Barroso, Mário and Restolho, José and Fernández, Nicolás and Rodilla, Jesus and Duarte, Ana P. and Cristóvão, Ana C. and Gallardo, Eugenia, Determination of N,N-Dimethyltryptamine and Beta-Carbolines in Plants Used to Prepare Ayahuasca Beverages by Means of Solid-Phase Extraction and Gas-Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry, SN Applied Sciences, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 463, February 2020. doi: 10.1007/s42452-020-2296-0. Abstract
    The goal of the present work was the development of a method to determine beta-carbolines, i.e., tetrahydroharmine, harmine, and harmaline, together with N,N-dimethyltryptamine present in five different commercial tea extracts [Banisteriopsis caapi, Psychotria viridis, Peganum harmala, Mimosa tenuiflora and DC AB (commercial name)] which are used to prepare the ritualistic Ayahuasca tea beverages, that exerts psychoactive effects on the brain, due to interactions between these compounds. The analytes were extracted and preconcentrated by an optimized solid-phase extraction procedure and analysis was performed by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Also, the optimization of the solid-phase extraction procedure was accomplished by evaluating different elution solvents and different proportions. Linearity was established from 0.2 to 20~µg/mL for all compounds, except for N,N-dimethyltryptamine (0.04 to 5~µg/mL), with determination coefficients above 0.99 for all analytes. The limits of quantification achieved for N,N-dimethyltryptamine and beta carbolines were 0.04 and 0.2~µg/mL, respectively. Recoveries ranged from 44 to 79\%. Lastly, intra- and inter-day precision and accuracy values were considered acceptable, in agreement with the chosen guidelines. This is the first method that determined both beta-carbolines and N,N-dimethyltryptamine present in commercially available tea extracts using GC–MS.
23. Trevisani, Adriane Cordeiro and Trevisani, João Pedro Cordeiro and Haverroth, M. and Melo, A. C. and Santos, I. C. and Barbosa, L. and Gonçalves, D., A Systematic Literature Review of the Potential Therapeutic Effects of Ayahuasca Tea Prepared From the Use of Banisteriopsis Caapi and Psychotria Viridis, 2020. doi: 10.5296/jas.v9i1.17910. Abstract
    This study aims to carry out a literature review of scientific articles (PubMed, Scielo and LILACS) in order to gather knowledge within 30 years of study about the therapeutic potentials of ayahuasca. Ayahuasca is a drink of indigenous origin made as a decoction obtained from medicinal plants found mainly in Acre, state of Brazil, which are the leaves of Psychtoria viridis, popularly known as “chacrona” in Brazil, and the stem of Banisteriopsis caapi, commonly known as mariri or jagube. The decoction is used in religious practices for the therapy of diseases that affect the human being, such as psychological disorders, neurological, parasitic and bacterial infections. Considering the existing bioactive compounds and the therapeutic potential of ayahuasca, this study aims to carry out a literature review of scientific articles (PubMed, Scielo and LILACS) in order to gather knowledge within 30 years of study about the therapeutic potentials of ayahuasca. In the current literature, the studies focus on the area of neuropsychology, dealing with ayahuasca as a form of therapy for neurological and neuromotor disorders. In addition, antimicrobial, antiparasitic, immunomodulatory, and antioxidant actions have already been reported. However, new studies are still needed in these areas in order to evaluate the efficacy and safety of ayahuasca and its component plant species, in order to use it as an alternative therapy, especially in the population from which the traditional knowledge about this beverage came from. Journal of Agricultural Studies ISSN 2166-0379 2021, Vol. 9, No. 1 http://jas.macrothink.org 114
24. Simão, Ana Y. and Gonçalves, Joana and Duarte, Ana Paula and Barroso, Mário and Cristóvão, Ana Clara and Gallardo, Eugenia, Toxicological Aspects and Determination of the Main Components of Ayahuasca: A Critical Review, Medicines, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 106, December 2019. doi: 10.3390/medicines6040106. Abstract
    Ayahuasca is a psychoactive beverage prepared traditionally from a mixture of the leaves and stems of Psychotria viridis and Banisteriopsis caapi, respectively, being originally consumed by indigenous Amazonian tribes for ritual and medicinal purposes. Over the years, its use has spread to other populations as a means to personal growth and spiritual connection. Also, the recreational use of its isolated compounds has become prominent. The main compounds of this tea-like preparation are N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), β-Carbolines, and harmala alkaloids, such as harmine, tetrahydroharmine, and harmaline. The latter are monoamine-oxidase inhibitors and are responsible for DMT psychoactive and hallucinogenic effects on the central nervous system. Although consumers defend its use, its metabolic effects and those on the central nervous system are not fully understood yet. The majority of studies regarding the effects of this beverage and of its individual compounds are based on in vivo experiments, clinical trials, and even surveys. This paper will not only address the toxicological aspects of the ayahuasca compounds but also perform a comprehensive and critical review on the analytical methods available for their determination in biological and non-biological specimens, with special focus on instrumental developments and sample preparation approaches.
25. Kummrow, Fábio and Maselli, Bianca S. and Lanaro, Rafael and Costa, José Luis and Umbuzeiro, Gisela A. and Linardi, Alessandra, Mutagenicity of Ayahuasca and Their Constituents to the Salmonella/Microsome Assay, Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis, vol. 60, no. 3, pp. 269--276, 2019. doi: 10.1002/em.22263. Abstract
    Ayahuasca is a beverage used in religious rituals of indigenous and nonindigenous groups, and its therapeutic potential has been investigated. Ayahuasca is obtained by decoction of the Banisteriopsis caapi that contains β-carbolines (harmine, harmaline, and tetrahydroharmine) plus Psychotria viridis that contains N,N-dimethyltryptamine. Although plants used in folk medicine are recognized as safe, many of them have genotoxic potential. The Salmonella/microsome assay is usually the first line of the mutagenicity evaluation of products intended for therapeutic use. Our objective was to evaluate the mutagenicity of ayahuasca beverage and their constituents using the Salmonella/microsome assay with TA98 and TA100. We analyzed two ayahuasca samples, and also beverage samples prepared each individual plant P. viridis and B. caapi. Harmine and harmaline were also tested. All beverage samples were chemically characterized and both ayahuasca samples could be considered representative of the beverages consumed in religious rituals. Both ayahuasca samples were mutagenic for TA98 and TA100 with and without S9, with similar potencies. The beverage obtained from P. viridis was not mutagenic, and beverage obtained from B. caapi was mutagenic for TA98 with and without S9. Harmine was nonmutagenic and harmaline was mutagenic only for TA98 without S9. Harmaline fully explain the mutagenicity observed with TA98 without S9 of both ayahuasca samples and the B. caapi beverage samples. We conclude that the ayahuasca samples are mutagenic and this effect is partially explained by harmaline, one of the β-carbolines present in the beverage. Other mutagenic compounds seem to be present and need to be further investigated. Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 60:269–276, 2019. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
26. {Estrella-Parra}, Edgar Antonio and {Almanza-Pérez}, Julio Cesar and {Alarcón-Aguilar}, Francisco Javier, Ayahuasca: Uses, Phytochemical and Biological Activities, Natural Products and Bioprospecting, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 251--265, August 2019. doi: 10.1007/s13659-019-0210-5. Abstract
    Ayahuasca (caapi, yajé), is a psychoactive brew from the Amazon Basin region of South America traditionally considered a “master plant.” It is prepared as a decoction from Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis, which it is thought that it stimulates creative thinking and visual creativity. Native healers of the Orinoco and Amazon basins have used traditionally ayahuasca as a healing tool for multiple purposes, particularly to treat psychological disorders in the patients, with some beneficial effects experimentally and clinically validated. Recently, several syncretic religions, as the “União de Vegetal” (UDV) group in Brazil, have been spread around the world. The use of ayahuasca has been popularized by internet and smart-shops, bringing the psychoactive substance to new highs, emerging new “ayahuasqueros.” Ayahuasca has alkaloids as β-carbolines and dimethyltryptamines, which inhibit the monoamine oxidase and active the 5-HT2A (5-hydroxytryptamine) receptor, respectively, resulting in hallucinations in the users. Ayahuasca induces a psychedelic change in the anteroposterior coupling of the electrophysiological brain oscillations in humans. Traditional ayahuasca beverage is generating pharmacological, commercial and spiritual interest among the scientific community, government people, and different populations worldwide. The goal of this article is to report about the uses, chemistry and biological activities of ayahuasca.
27. Kowalczuk, Anna P. and Łozak, Anna and Bachliński, Robert and Duszyński, Anna and Sakowska, Joanna and Zjawiony, Jordan K., Identification Challenges in Examination of Commercial Plant Material of Psychotria Viridis, Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutica, vol. 72, no. 4, pp. 747--755, 2015 Jul-Aug. Abstract
    Psychoria viridis (chacruna) is a hallucinogenic plant with psychoactive properties associated with the presence of N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT). This species is primarily known as an ingredient of the beverage Ayahuasca, but dry leaves are also smoked by recreational users. The plant is controlled in Poland and France and its proper identification poses many challenges due to the fact that genus Psychotria is relatively large and there are other species that are easily confused with chacruna. The aim of the present work was to develop an effective authentication procedure for the dried and shredded leaves of P. viridis, to be used in comparison of chemical and botanical characteristics of its commercial products. Dried leaves of P. viridis originating from Brazil, Peru and Hawaii were purchased from Internet providers. For DMT identification, thin layer chromatography (TLC) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) methods have been elaborated, validated and applied. In order to clarify the existing differences among samples, chemometric methods have been used. Botanical features and the gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS) chromatograms have been analyzed using hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA). Our studies revealed significant variety among plant material marketed as P. viridis. Grouping of samples based on their micromorphology features and GC-MS results did not correspond well with the presence of DMT. Based on our results an indisputable identification of dried specimens as P. viridis is very problematic. It is necessary to postulate changes in legislation regarding regulation of P. viridis and replace it with DMT as controlled substance.
28. Riba, Jordi and McIlhenny, Ethan H. and Valle, Marta and Bouso, José Carlos and Barker, Steven A., Metabolism and Disposition of N,N-Dimethyltryptamine and Harmala Alkaloids after Oral Administration of Ayahuasca, Drug Testing and Analysis, vol. 4, no. 7-8, pp. 610--616, 2012. doi: 10.1002/dta.1344. Abstract
    Ayahuasca is an Amazonian psychotropic plant tea obtained from Banisteriopsis caapi, which contains β-carboline alkaloids, chiefly harmine, harmaline and tetrahydroharmine. The tea usually incorporates the leaves of Psychotria viridis or Diplopterys cabrerana, which are rich in N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), a psychedelic 5-HT2A/1A/2C agonist. The β-carbolines reversibly inhibit monoamine-oxidase (MAO), effectively preventing oxidative deamination of the orally labile DMT and allowing its absorption and access to the central nervous system. Despite increased use of the tea worldwide, the metabolism and excretion of DMT and the β-carbolines has not been studied systematically in humans following ingestion of ayahuasca. In the present work, we used an analytical method involving high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)/electrospray ionization (ESI)/selected reaction monitoring (SRM)/tandem mass spectrometry(MS/MS) to characterize the metabolism and disposition of ayahuasca alkaloids in humans. Twenty-four-hour urine samples were obtained from 10 healthy male volunteers following administration of an oral dose of encapsulated freeze-dried ayahuasca (1.0 mg DMT/kg body weight). Results showed that less than 1\% of the administered DMT dose was excreted unchanged. Around 50\% was recovered as indole-3-acetic acid but also as DMT-N-oxide (10\%) and other MAO-independent compounds. Recovery of DMT plus metabolites reached 68\%. Harmol, harmalol, and tetrahydroharmol conjugates were abundant in urine. However, recoveries of each harmala alkaloid plus its O-demethylated metabolite varied greatly between 9 and 65\%. The present results show the existence in humans of alternative metabolic routes for DMT other than biotransformation by MAO. Also that O-demethylation plus conjugation is an important but probably not the only metabolic route for the harmala alkaloids in humans. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley \& Sons, Ltd.
29. Moura, Sidnei and Carvalho, Felipe Garcia and {de Oliveira}, Carolina Dizioli Rodrigues and Pinto, Ernani and Yonamine, Mauricio, qNMR: An Applicable Method for the Determination of Dimethyltryptamine in Ayahuasca, a Psychoactive Plant Preparation, Phytochemistry Letters, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 79--83, June 2010. doi: 10.1016/j.phytol.2009.12.004. Abstract
    Ayahuasca is an Amazonian plant beverage obtained by infusing the pounded stems of Banisteriopsis caapi in combination with the leaves of Psychotria viridis. P. viridis contains the psychedelic indole N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT). This association has a wide range of use in religious rituals around the world. In the present work, an easy, fast and non-destructive method by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance of proton (1H NMR) for quantification of DMT in ayahuasca samples was developed and validated. 2,5-Dimethoxybenzaldehyde (DMBO) was used as internal standard (IS). For this purpose, the area ratios produced by protons of DMT (N(CH3)2) at 2.70ppm, singlet, (6H) and for DMBO (Ar(OCH3)2) at 3.80 and 3.89ppm, doublet, (6H) were used for quantification. The lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) was 12.5μg/mL and a good intra-assay precision was also obtained (relative standard deviation{$<$}5.1\%). The present 1H NMR method is not time consuming and can be readily applied to monitor this tryptamine in plant preparations. We believe that qNMR can be used for identification and quantification of many plant-based products and metabolites with important advantages, while comparing with other analytical techniques.
30. Pires, Ana Paula Salum and De Oliveira, Carolina Dizioli Rodrigues and Moura, Sidnei and Dörr, Felipe Augusto and Silva, Wagner Abreu E. and Yonamine, Mauricio, Gas Chromatographic Analysis of Dimethyltryptamine and β-Carboline Alkaloids in Ayahuasca, an Amazonian Psychoactive Plant Beverage, Phytochemical Analysis, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 149--153, 2009. doi: 10.1002/pca.1110. Abstract
    Introduction Ayahuasca is obtained by infusing the pounded stems of Banisteriopsis caapi in combination with the leaves of Psychotria viridis. P. viridis is rich in the psychedelic indole N,N-dimethyltryptamine, whereas B. caapi contains substantial amounts of β-carboline alkaloids, mainly harmine, harmaline and tetrahydroharmine, which are monoamine-oxidase inhibitors. Because of differences in composition in ayahuasca preparations, a method to measure their main active constituents is needed. Objective To develop a gas chromatographic method for the simultaneous determination of dimethyltryptamine and the main β-carbolines found in ayahuasca preparations. Methodology The alkaloids were extracted by means of solid phase extraction (C18) and detected by gas chromatography with nitrogen/phosphorous detector. Results The lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) was 0.02 mg/mL for all analytes. The calibration curves were linear over a concentration range of 0.02–4.0 mg/mL (r2 {$>$} 0.99). The method was also precise (RSD {$<$} 10\%). Conclusion A simple gas chromatographic method to determine the main alkaloids found in ayahuasca was developed and validated. The method can be useful to estimate administered doses in animals and humans for further pharmacological and toxicological investigations of ayahuasca. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley \& Sons, Ltd.
31. Gambelunghe, Cristiana and Aroni, Kyriaki and Rossi, Riccardo and Moretti, Luca and Bacci, Mauro, Identification of N,N-Dimethyltryptamine and β-Carbolines in Psychotropic Ayahuasca Beverage, Biomedical Chromatography, vol. 22, no. 10, pp. 1056--1059, 2008. doi: 10.1002/bmc.1023. Abstract
    Recently many people have shown great interest in traditional indigenous practices and popular medicine, involving the ingestion of natural psychotropic drugs. We received a request to analyze and determine the nature of a dark green liquid with a dark brown plant sediment, which the police had seized at an airport and inside the home of a person belonging to the ‘Santo Daime’ religious movement. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis of the extract identified N,N-dimethyltryptamine, a potent hallucinogen, and the β-carboline alkaloids harmine and harmaline, revealing monoamine oxidase A-inhibiting properties. These substances are typical components of Ayahuasca, a South American psychotropic beverage obtained by boiling the bark of the liana Banisteriopsis caapi together with the leaves of various admixture plants, principally Psychotria viridis. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley \& Sons, Ltd.
32. Callaway, J. C., Various Alkaloid Profiles in Decoctions of Banisteriopsis Caapi, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 151--155, June 2005. doi: 10.1080/02791072.2005.10399796. Abstract
    Twenty nine decoctions of Banisteriopsis caapi from four different sources and one specimen of B. caapi paste were analyzed for N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), tetrahydroharmine (THH), harmaline and harmine. Other plants were also used in the preparation of these products, typically Psychotria viridis, which provides DMT. There were considerable variations in alkaloid profiles, both within and between sample sources. DMT was not detected in all samples. Additional THH may be formed from both harmine and harmaline during the preparation of these products. The alkaloid composition of one decoction sample did not change significantly after standing at room temperature for 80 days, but the initial acidic pH was neutralized by natural fermentation after 50 days.
33. Callaway, J. C. and Brito, Glacus S. and Neves, Edison S., Phytochemical Analyses of Banisteriopsis Caapi and Psychotria Viridis, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 145--150, June 2005. doi: 10.1080/02791072.2005.10399795. Abstract
    A total of 32 Banisteriopsis caapi samples and 36 samples of Psychotria viridis were carefully collected from different plants on the same day from 22 sites throughout Brazil for phytochemical analyses. A broad range in alkaloid distribution was observed in both sample sets. All B. caapi samples had detectable amounts of harmine, harmaline and tetrahydroharmine (THH), while some samples of P. viridis had little or no detectable levels of N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT). Leaves of P. viridis were also collected from one plant and analyzed for DMT throughout a 24-hour cycle.
34. Freedland, Cory S and Mansbach, Robert S, Behavioral Profile of Constituents in Ayahuasca, an Amazonian Psychoactive Plant Mixture, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 183--194, May 1999. doi: 10.1016/S0376-8716(98)00154-9. Abstract
    Ayahuasca is a psychoactive plant mixture typically composed of the β-carboline-rich Banisteriopsis caapi vine and the hallucinogenic plant Psychotria viridis. Ayahuasca has long been used by aboriginal populations for its putative spiritual and medicinal benefits. Although the presumed primary chemical constituents of ayahuasca have been identified, little is known about the basic in vivo pharmacology of the extract. Two principal constituents of ayahuasca, the β-carboline harmine and N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) were selected for detailed study in mice using the Functional Observational Battery (FOB). The B. caapi extract was then examined alone and in combination with DMT. Harmine and the B. caapi extract produced similar effects in the FOB, particularly in the open field. Clonic and tonic motor movements were augmented by DMT administration. Harmine and B. caapi decreased acoustic startle amplitude without significantly affecting prepulse inhibition. DMT appeared to attenuate startle-decreasing effects of harmine and B. caapi, although these effects fell just short of significance. These results suggest that the behavioral effects of B. caapi in mice may be attributed in large part to its principal alkaloid species, harmine, and related β-carbolines in the extract. Hence, the presence of the banisteriopsis vine in the admixture may directly contribute to the unique subjective effects of ayahuasca.
35. Leal, M. B. and Elisabetsky, E., Absence of Alkaloids in Psychotria Carthagenensis Jacq. (Rubiaceae), Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 54, no. 1, pp. 37--40, October 1996. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(96)01448-1. Abstract
    Psychotria viridis and P. carthagenensis are often discussed in relation to the hallucinogenic beverage Ayahuasca, used for religious, medicinal and social purposes. The significance of including Psychotria species in this beverage has been understood on the basis of substantial amounts of tryptamine alkaloids detected on leaves of both P. viridis and P. carthagenensis. Nevertheless, there is a long lasting debate over the identification of which Psychotria species are actually traditionally employed. We here report that a P. carthagenensis leaf ethanol extract was found to be devoid of alkaloids. The extract significantly decreased mice body temperature (350 and 500 mg/kg). Toxicity assessment revealed that the extract induced sedation and slight ptoses (75\% of animals treated with 1000 mg/kg). Lethality was not observed within 48 h. The data indicate that P. carthagenensis does have bioactive compound(s), possibly active at the central nervous system, but unlikely to be tryptamine alkaloids as in the case of P. viridis. Therefore, if P. carthagenensis is indeed used by ayahuasqueros, its chemical and pharmacological significance have yet to be elucidated.
36. McKenna, Dennis J. and Towers, G. H. N. and Abbott, F., Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors in South American Hallucinogenic Plants: Tryptamine and β-Carboline Constituents of Ayahuasca, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 195--223, April 1984. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(84)90003-5. Abstract
    Ayahuasca is a hallucinogenic beverage derived by boiling the bark of the Malpighiaceous liana Banisteriopsis caapi together with the leaves of various admixture plants, viz. Psychotria viridis, Psychotria carthagenensis, or Diplopterys cabrerana. B. caapi contains harmine, harmaline, and tetrahydroharmine while the admixtures contain N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT). DMT, a potent hallucinogen, is inactive orally due to degradation by visceral monoamine oxidase (MAO). The β-carbolines, however, are highly active reversible inhibitors of MAO and may protect the DMT from deamination by MAO and render it orally active. This mechanism has been proposed to underlie the oral activity of ayahuasca but has not been experimentally confirmed. In the present study the constituents of the admixture plants and the alkaloids of eight ayahuasca samples from Peru were qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed using two-dimensional thin-layer chromatography (TLC), high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Several B. caapi cultivars were quantitatively compared for variations in alkaloid content. Three admixture plants used rarely in the manufacture of ayahuasca were also screened for alkaloids. A selected sample of β-carbolines were screened for activity as MAO inhibitors using an in vitro assay system, and structure/activity relationships were compared. Inhibition observed with single compounds was compared with the activity of selected samples of ayahuasca which were screened in the system and also with the activity of mixtures of β-carbolines. The levels of DMT and β-carbolines found in the ayahuasca samples examined in the present study were an order of magnitude greater than the levels reported in a previous study. Ayahuasca was found to be an extremely effective inhibitor of MAO in vitro and the degree of inhibition was directly correlated with the concentration of MAO-inhibiting β-carbolines. Inhibition experiments using mixtures of β-carbolines indicated that their effects in combination are additive, rather than synergistic or antagonistic. Implications of the results in understanding the pharmacology of ayahuasca are discussed.
37. Rivier, Laurent and Lindgren, Jan-Erik, “Ayahuasca,” the South American Hallucinogenic Drink: An Ethnobotanical and Chemical Investigation, Economic Botany, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 101--129, April 1972. doi: 10.1007/BF02860772. Abstract
    The Sharanahua and Culina, small Indian tribes located in the southwestern Amazon basin, use a hallucinogenic drink for medicinal and social purposes. This decoction, called “Ayahuasca” in Peru, is prepared from Banisteriopsis Caapi stems and Psychotria sp. leaves. These plants have been botanically identified on the basis of voucher herbarium specimens and investigated for alkaloid content by means of a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry technique. A list of other occasional plant admixtures is given. Harmine, Harmaline, Tetrahydroharmine, Harmol and 6-Methoxytryptamine have been found in Banisteriopsis Caapi. Dimethyltryptamine, Monomethyltryptamine and 2-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline have been found in Psychotria viridis and Psychotria carthaginensis. Harmine, Harmaline, Tetrahydroharmine and Dimethyltryptamine have been found in the drink. Quantitative calculations show the amount of each alkaloid administered in the Ayahuasca drink.
38. Kowalczuk, Anna Paulina and Kiljan, Monika and Trak, Krystyna M and Zjawiony, Jordan Kordian, Application of Chemometrics for Identification of Psychoactive Plants, Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutica, vol. 72, no. 3, pp. 517--525, 2015. Abstract
    Drug market changes dynamically causing many analytical challenges for police experts. Among illicit substances there are synthetic designer products but also herbal material. Plant material is usually in finecut or powdered form, thus difficult to identify. For such fragmented material classic taxonomical identification methods using anatomical and morphological features of the plant cannot be employed. The aim of the study was to develop an identification method of the powdered material with employment of multidimensional data analysis techniques. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was chosen as a method of data exploration. The study was conducted on four plants controlled in Poland: Salvia divinorum, Mitragyna speciosa, Psychotria viridis and Calea zacatechichi. The compatibility of grouping features of selected species was compared in two variants: chemical and elemental composition. In a first variant, GC-MS chromatograms of extracts were analyzed and in the second, elements composition with the AAS and the ICP-MS techniques. The GC-MS method, based on the qualitative interpretation of results, allows for clear differentiation of samples with regard to their species affiliation. Even the plants belonging to the same family Rubiaceae, P. viridis and M. speciosa formed homogeneous and clearly separated clusters. Additionally, the cluster analysis was performed, as a method confirming sample grouping.
39. Varani, Alessandro M. and Silva, Saura R. and Lopes, Simone and Barbosa, Jose Beethoven Figueiredo and Oliveira, Danilo and Corrêa, Maria Alice and Moraes, Ana Paula and Miranda, Vitor F. O. and Prosdocimi, Francisco, The Complete Organellar Genomes of the Entheogenic Plant Psychotria Viridis (Rubiaceae), a Main Component of the Ayahuasca Brew, PeerJ, vol. 10, pp. e14114, October 2022. doi: 10.7717/peerj.14114. Abstract
    Psychotria viridis (Rubioideae: Rubiaceae), popularly known as chacrona, is commonly found as a shrub in the Amazon region and is well-known to produce psychoactive compounds, such as the N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT). Together with the liana Banisteropsis caapi, P. viridis is one of the main components of the Amerindian traditional, entheogenic beverage known as ayahuasca. In this work, we assembled and annotated the organellar genomes (ptDNA and mtDNA), presenting the first genomics resources for this species. The P. viridis ptDNA exhibits 154,106 bp, encoding all known ptDNA gene repertoire found in angiosperms. The Psychotria genus is a complex paraphyletic group, and according to phylogenomic analyses, P. viridis is nested in the Psychotrieae clade. Comparative ptDNA analyses indicate that most Rubiaceae plastomes present conserved ptDNA structures, often showing slight differences at the junction sites of the major four regions (LSC-IR-SSC). For the mitochondrion, assembly graph-based analysis supports a complex mtDNA organization, presenting at least two alternative and circular mitogenomes structures exhibiting two main repeats spanning 24 kb and 749 bp that may symmetrically isomerize the mitogenome into variable arrangements and isoforms. The circular mtDNA sequences (615,370 and 570,344 bp) encode almost all plant mitochondrial genes (except for the ccmC, rps7, rps10, rps14, rps19, rpl2 and rpl16 that appears as pseudogenes, and the absent genes sdh3, rps2, rsp4, rsp8, rps11, rpl6, and rpl10), showing slight variations related to exclusive regions, ptDNA integration, and relics of previous events of LTR-RT integration. The detection of two mitogenomes haplotypes is evidence of heteroplasmy as observed by the complex organization of the mitochondrial genome using graph-based analysis. Taken together, these results elicit the primary insights into the genome biology and evolutionary history of Psychotria viridis and may be used to aid strategies for conservation of this sacred, entheogenic species.
40. {planthelper}, Psychotria Viridis Identification, The Corroboree, June 2011. url: https://www.shaman-australis.com/forum/index.php?/topic/28364-psychotria-viridis-identification/. Abstract
    i thought a thread on this could be usefull.i hope to expand this thread with more details, in given time.first all three different viridis in one shot, all the plants are of similar age, but the moon aka la luna was a bit bigger when i recieved those beauties from tort.
41. Blackledge, Robert, Psychotria Viridis – A Botanical Source of Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), Microgram Journal, vol. 1, January 2003. Abstract
    Dimethyltryptamine was identified by GC/MS in a sample of dried leafy material that was subsequently identified as Psychotria viridis (Rubiaceae), a tropical shrub native to Central and South America that has ethnobotanical use as a hallucinogen by many indigenous peoples of tropical South America. The botanical characteristics of Psychotria viridis are illustrated and described.
42. Silva, L. and Bravo, L., Possible Therapeutics Effects of Ayahuasca, a Psychedelic Compound, European Psychiatry, vol. 65, no. S1, pp. S871-S872, June 2022. doi: 10.1192/j.eurpsy.2022.2260. Abstract
    IntroductionAyahuasca is an hallucinogenic tea prepared from the Amazonian vine Banisteriopsis caapi and the leaves of the plant Psychotria Viridis. Banisteriopsis caapi contains monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAO) that render the N, N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) of Psychotria Viridis active. This brew is being used as a sacrament in syncretic religions in urban areas of Brazil and worldwide with the purpose of enabling a spiritual experience as well as healing for a variety of conditions such as drug addiction, depression and anxiety disorders.ObjectivesThis work aims to provide an understanding on the potential benefits of ayahuasca in psychiatric symptoms, as well as its neuropsychological functioning, neuroimaging and adverse events.MethodsA non-systematic review was performed on PubMed database and Google Scholar, using the key words “Ayahuasca, Drug Addiction, Psychedelics, DMT, Neuroplasticity”. The review included experimental studies in humans, observational studies, systemic review articles and clinical trials.ResultsIn a randomized placebo-controlled trial, ayahuasca had a significant antidepressant effect when compared to the placebo group. Long term ayahuasca usage was associated with structural alterations in the medial parts of the brain with no evidence of increased psychopathology or worse neuropsychological functioning. According to reviewed studies the incident of prolonged psychotic reaction among ayahuasca users is rare and the causal relation with ayahuasca is sometimes difficult to establish.ConclusionsDespite the promising results, more controlled double-blinded studies with larger populations are necessary to better understand the therapeutic potentials and side effects of ayahuasca.DisclosureNo significant relationships.
43. Politi, Matteo and Tresca, Giorgia and Menghini, Luigi and Ferrante, Claudio, Beyond the Psychoactive Effects of Ayahuasca: Cultural and Pharmacological Relevance of Its Emetic and Purging Properties, Planta Medica, vol. 88, no. 14, pp. 1275--1286, November 2022. doi: 10.1055/a-1675-3840. Abstract
    The herbal preparation ayahuasca has been an important part of ritual and healing practices, deployed to access invisible worlds in several indigenous groups in the Amazon basin and among mestizo populations of South America. The preparation is usually known to be composed of two main plants, Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis, which produce both hallucinogenic and potent purging and emetic effects; currently, these are considered its major pharmacological activities. In recent decades, the psychoactive and visionary effect of ayahuasca has been highly sought after by the shamanic tourism community, which led to the popularization of ayahuasca use globally and to a cultural distancing from its traditional cosmological meanings, including that of purging and emesis. Further, the field of ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology has also produced relatively limited data linking the phytochemical diversity of ayahuasca with the different degrees of its purging and emetic versus psychoactive effects. Similarly, scientific interest has also principally addressed the psychological and mental health effects of ayahuasca, overlooking the cultural and pharmacological importance of the purging and emetic activity. The aim of this review is therefore to shed light on the understudied purging and emetic effect of ayahuasca herbal preparation. It firstly focuses on reviewing the cultural relevance of emesis and purging in the context of Amazonian traditions. Secondly, on the basis of the main known phytochemicals described in the ayahuasca formula, a comprehensive pharmacological evaluation of their emetic and purging properties is presented.
44. {Palhano-Fontes}, Fernanda and Soares, Bruno Lobão and {Galvão-Coelho}, Nicole Leite and Arcoverde, Emerson and Araujo, Draulio B., Ayahuasca for the Treatment of Depression, pp. 113--124, 2022. doi: 10.1007/7854_2021_277. Abstract
    Ayahuasca, the vine of the souls in Quechua, is a psychedelic brew with a few formulations that most often include the bark of a liana in the Malpighiaceae family (Banisteriopsis caapi), with leaves from a shrub in the coffee family Rubiaceae (Psychotria viridis). Mixed with water and boiled for hours or days, it produces a brownish-colored liquid with a strong and characteristic taste. Ayahuasca contains the psychedelic tryptamine N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (DMT), and Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOi), and in the past few years, it has been tested. In recent years its antidepressant properties have been put to the test. Evidence from open and randomized placebo-controlled clinical trials has shown encouraging results, indicating significant and rapid antidepressant effects, starting as early as 1 day after the ayahuasca intervention. In addition, we have explored the nature of these effects using multivariate measures. In this article, we will review the history, pharmacology, clinical trials, and clinical and behavioral markers associated with the antidepressant effects of ayahuasca.
45. Lanaro, Rafael and Mello, Sueli Moreira and {da Cunha}, Kelly Francisco and Silveira, Gabriela and {Corrêa-Neto}, Nelson Francisco and Hyslop, Stephen and Cabrices, Oscar G. and Costa, Jose Luiz and Linardi, Alessandra, Kinetic Profile of N,N-Dimethyltryptamine and β-Carbolines in Saliva and Serum after Oral Administration of Ayahuasca in a Religious Context, Drug Testing and Analysis, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 664--678, 2021. doi: 10.1002/dta.2955. Abstract
    Ayahuasca is a beverage obtained from Banisteriopsis caapi plus Psychotria viridis. B. caapi contains the β-carbolines harmine, harmaline, and tetrahydroharmine that are monoamine oxidase inhibitors and P. viridis contains N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) that is responsible for the visionary effects of the beverage. Ayahuasca use is becoming a global phenomenon, and the recreational use of DMT and similar alkaloids has also increased in recent years; such uncontrolled use can lead to severe intoxications. In this investigation, liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) was used to study the kinetics of alkaloids over a 24 h period in saliva and serum of 14 volunteers who consumed ayahuasca twice a month in a religious context. We compared the area under the curve (AUC), maximum concentration (Cmax), time to reach Cmax (Tmax), mean residence time (MRT), and half-life (t1/2), as well as the serum/saliva ratios of these parameters. DMT and β-carboline concentrations (Cmax) and AUC were higher in saliva than in serum and the MRT was 1.5–3.0 times higher in serum. A generalized estimation equations (GEEs) model suggested that serum concentrations could be predicted by saliva concentrations, despite large individual variability in the saliva and serum alkaloid concentrations. The possibility of using saliva as a biological matrix to detect DMT, β-carbolines, and their derivatives is very interesting because it allows fast noninvasive sample collection and could be useful for detecting similar alkaloids used recreationally that have considerable potential for intoxication.
46. Hamill, Jonathan and Hallak, Jaime and Dursun, Serdar M. and Baker, Glen, Ayahuasca: Psychological and Physiologic Effects, Pharmacology and Potential Uses in Addiction and Mental Illness, Current Neuropharmacology, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 108--128, February 2019. doi: 10.2174/1570159X16666180125095902. Abstract
    Background: Ayahuasca, a traditional Amazonian decoction with psychoactive properties, is made from bark of the Banisteriopsis caapi vine (containing beta-carboline alkaloids) and leaves of the Psychotria viridis bush (supplying the hallucinogen N,N-dimethyltryptamine, DMT). Originally used by indigenous shamans for the purposes of spirit communication, magical experiences, healing, and religious rituals across several South American countries, ayahuasca has been incorporated into folk medicine and spiritual healing, and several Brazilian churches use it routinely to foster a spiritual experience. More recently, it is being used in Europe and North America, not only for religious or healing reasons, but also for recreation. Objective: To review ayahuasca's behavioral effects, possible adverse effects, proposed mechanisms of action and potential clinical uses in mental illness. Method: We searched Medline, in English, using the terms ayahuasca, dimethyltryptamine, Banisteriopsis caapi, and Psychotria viridis and reviewed the relevant publications. Results: The following aspects of ayahuasca are summarized: Political and legal factors; acute and chronic psychological effects; electrophysiological studies and imaging; physiological effects; safety and adverse effects; pharmacology; potential psychiatric uses. Conclusion: Many years of shamanic wisdom have indicated potential therapeutic uses for ayahuasca, and several present day studies suggest that it may be useful for treating various psychiatric disorders and addictions. The side effect profile appears to be relatively mild, but more detailed studies need to be done. Several prominent researchers believe that government regulations with regard to ayahuasca should be relaxed so that it could be provided more readily to recognized, credible researchers to conduct comprehensive clinical trials.
47. Heise, C. William and Brooks, Daniel E., Ayahuasca Exposure: Descriptive Analysis of Calls to US Poison Control Centers from 2005 to 2015, Journal of Medical Toxicology, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 245--248, September 2017. doi: 10.1007/s13181-016-0593-1. Abstract
    Ayahuasca is a hallucinogenic plant preparation which usually contains the vine Banisteriopsis caapi and the shrub Psychotria viridis. This tea originates from the Amazon Basin where it is used in religious ceremonies. Because interest in these religious groups spreading as well as awareness of use of ayahuasca for therapeutic and recreational purposes, its use is increasing. Banisteriopsis caapi is rich in β-carbolines, especially harmine, tetrahydroharmine and harmaline, which have monoamine oxidase inhibiting (MAOI) activity. Psychotria viridis contains the 5HT2A/2C/1A receptor agonist hallucinogen N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT). Usual desired effects include hallucination, dissociation, mood alteration and perception change. Undesired findings previously reported are nausea, vomiting, hypertension, and tachycardia.
48. {Domínguez-Clavé}, Elisabet and Soler, Joaquim and Elices, Matilde and Pascual, Juan C. and Álvarez, Enrique and {de la Fuente Revenga}, Mario and Friedlander, Pablo and Feilding, Amanda and Riba, Jordi, Ayahuasca: Pharmacology, Neuroscience and Therapeutic Potential, Brain Research Bulletin, vol. 126, pp. 89--101, September 2016. doi: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.03.002. Abstract
    Ayahuasca is the Quechua name for a tea obtained from the vine Banisteriopsis caapi, and used for ritual purposes by the indigenous populations of the Amazon. The use of a variation of the tea that combines B. caapi with the leaves of the shrub Psychotria viridis has experienced unprecedented expansion worldwide for its psychotropic properties. This preparation contains the psychedelic 5-HT2A receptor agonist N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) from P. viridis, plus β-carboline alkaloids with monoamine-oxidase-inhibiting properties from B. caapi. Acute administration induces a transient modified state of consciousness characterized by introspection, visions, enhanced emotions and recollection of personal memories. A growing body of evidence suggests that ayahuasca may be useful to treat substance use disorders, anxiety and depression. Here we review the pharmacology and neuroscience of ayahuasca, and the potential psychological mechanisms underlying its therapeutic potential. We discuss recent findings indicating that ayahuasca intake increases certain mindfulness facets related to acceptance and to the ability to take a detached view of one’s own thoughts and emotions. Based on the available evidence, we conclude that ayahuasca shows promise as a therapeutic tool by enhancing self-acceptance and allowing safe exposure to emotional events. We postulate that ayahuasca could be of use in the treatment of impulse-related, personality and substance use disorders and also in the handling of trauma. More research is needed to assess the full potential of ayahuasca in the treatment of these disorders.
49. Tupper, Kenneth W., The Globalization of Ayahuasca: Harm Reduction or Benefit Maximization?, International Journal of Drug Policy, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 297--303, August 2008. doi: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2006.11.001. Abstract
    Ayahuasca is a tea made from two plants native to the Amazon, Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis, which, respectively, contain the psychoactive chemicals harmala alkaloids and dimethyltryptamine. The tea has been used by indigenous peoples in countries such as Brazil, Ecuador and Peru for medicinal, spiritual and cultural purposes since pre-Columbian times. In the 20th century, ayahuasca spread beyond its native habitat and has been incorporated into syncretistic practices that are being adopted by non-indigenous peoples in modern Western contexts. Ayahuasca's globalization in the past few decades has led to a number of legal cases which pit religious freedom against national drug control laws. This paper explores some of the philosophical and policy implications of contemporary ayahuasca use. It addresses the issue of the social construction of ayahuasca as a medicine, a sacrament and a “plant teacher.” Issues of harm reduction with respect to ayahuasca use are explored, but so too is the corollary notion of “benefit maximization.”
50. Santos, R. G. and {Landeira-Fernandez}, J. and Strassman, R. J. and Motta, V. and Cruz, A. P. M., Effects of Ayahuasca on Psychometric Measures of Anxiety, Panic-like and Hopelessness in Santo Daime Members, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, vol. 112, no. 3, pp. 507--513, July 2007. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2007.04.012. Abstract
    The use of the hallucinogenic brew ayahuasca, obtained from infusing the shredded stalk of the malpighiaceous plant Banisteriopsis caapi with the leaves of other plants such as Psychotria viridis, is growing in urban centers of Europe, South and North America in the last several decades. Despite this diffusion, little is known about its effects on emotional states. The present study investigated the effects of ayahuasca on psychometric measures of anxiety, panic-like and hopelessness in members of the Santo Daime, an ayahuasca-using religion. Standard questionnaires were used to evaluate state-anxiety (STAI-state), trait-anxiety (STAI-trait), panic-like (ASI-R) and hopelessness (BHS) in participants that ingested ayahuasca for at least 10 consecutive years. The study was done in the Santo Daime church, where the questionnaires were administered 1h after the ingestion of the brew, in a double-blind, placebo-controlled procedure. While under the acute effects of ayahuasca, participants scored lower on the scales for panic and hopelessness related states. Ayahuasca ingestion did not modify state- or trait-anxiety. The results are discussed in terms of the possible use of ayahuasca in alleviating signs of hopelessness and panic-like related symptoms.
51. Riba, Jordi and Anderer, Peter and Jané, Francesc and Saletu, Bernd and Barbanoj, Manel J., Effects of the South American Psychoactive Beverage Ayahuasca on Regional Brain Electrical Activity in Humans: A Functional Neuroimaging Study Using Low-Resolution Electromagnetic Tomography, Neuropsychobiology, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 89--101, June 2004. doi: 10.1159/000077946. Abstract
    Ayahuasca, a South American psychotropic plant tea obtained from Banisteriopsis caapi and Psychotria viridis, combines monoamine oxidase-inhibiting β-carboline alkaloids with N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), a psychedelic agent showing 5-HT2A agonist activity. In a clinical research setting, ayahuasca has demonstrated a combined stimulatory and psychedelic effect profile, as measured by subjective effect self-assessment instruments and dose-dependent changes in spontaneous brain electrical activity, which parallel the time course of subjective effects. In the present study, the spatial distribution of ayahuasca-induced changes in brain electrical activity was investigated by means of low-resolution electromagnetic tomography (LORETA). Electroencephalography recordings were obtained from 18 volunteers after the administration of a dose of encapsulated freeze-dried ayahuasca containing 0.85 mg DMT/kg body weight and placebo. The intracerebral power density distribution was computed with LORETA from spectrally analyzed data, and subjective effects were measured by means of the Hallucinogen Rating Scale (HRS). Statistically significant differences compared to placebo were observed for LORETA power 60 and 90 min after dosing, together with increases in all six scales of the HRS. Ayahuasca decreased power density in the alpha-2, delta, theta and beta-1 frequency bands. Power decreases in the delta, alpha-2 and beta-1 bands were found predominantly over the temporo-parieto-occipital junction, whereas theta power was reduced in the temporomedial cortex and in frontomedial regions. The present results suggest the involvement of unimodal and heteromodal association cortex and limbic structures in the psychological effects elicited by ayahuasca.